Farmers Leader कृषक अगुवा "Dev Dhawal"

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March 07, 2019

Crop Development Directorate (CDD) is the principal program and policy oriented organization of the Ministry of Agricultural Development (MoAD) and Department of Agriculture (DoA) for food and nutrition security in the country. As an extension institution, the Directorate implements several projects and activities with the aim to sustainably raise the production and productivity of cereals, pulses, oilseeds and industrial crops.

Rice ranks the first among cereal crops in Nepal in terms of area, production and livelihood. As the most important staple food of Nepalese people, rice supplies about 40% of the food calorie intake and contributes nearly 20% to the agricultural gross domestic product (AGDP) and 7% to GDP. Rice in Nepal carries special cultural, religious and traditional values in the society.

Considering the important role of rice in the economy and food security, Government of Nepal (GoN) has prioritized the development and deployment of new crop varieties and quality seeds. As of 2014 Nepal has released seventy three rice varieties for mountains, hills and terai ecologies for commercial production. However, only about half of these varieties are being adopted by farmers and many unregistered and banned varieties are still being widely cultivated by farmers. In this regards, CDD took an initiative to document the adoption status of rice varieties by farmers in different ecological regions of Nepal resulting in “Rice Varietal Mapping”. It also includes brief overall present scenario of rice development in Nepal.

This book on “Rice Varietal Mapping” assesses the area under various open pollinated, hybrids and traditional varieties across all the seventy-three districts of Nepal. This study imparts insights on reasons for adoption and non-adoption of different released rice varieties and provides practical recommendations to increase the production and productivity of rice in Nepal. This report provides information on rice that could be resourceful for policy makers, donors, researcher, extensionist, seed companies, rice processer, Non Governmental organizations/International Non Governmental organizations, teaching/training institutes and farmers for further rice improvement towards food security in Nepal. CDD is proud to publish and disseminate this valuable document.

Dr. Ganesh Raj Joshi (Agri-economist) has made significant contribution in bringing this publication. His relentless effort is highly appreciated and recognized. Sincere thanks go to the Stress Tolerant Rice for Africa and South Asia (STRASA) project for providing complementary financial supports to undertake the study in bringing the document

to this shape. I gratefully acknowledge the cooperation and contribution by Dr. Uma Shankar Singh, Senior Scientist II, Coordinator STRASSA project and Represented of IRRI to India and Nepal as well as Dr. Bhaba Prasad Tripathi, Senior Associate Scientist, IRRINepal office.

I express my sincere gratitude to Senior Crop Development Officers: Mr. Nirmal Gadal, Mr. Bhoj Raj Sapkota, Senior Agriculture Extension Officer Mr. Keshab Khanal and Crop Development Officers: Mr. Mukunda Bhusal, Mr. Ram Balam Sah and Mrs. Samjhana Lamichhane (Bhusal). Entire CDD team’s efforts during the preparation of this book deserve high appreciation.

Finally, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to all Senior Agriculture Development Officers, subject matter specialists, Junior Technicians/Junior Technical Assistants of 75 District Agriculture Development Offices and 378 Agriculture Services Centers, who participated in the survey and provided required data of their respective districts.

I am extremely grateful to Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) scientists, Seed Quality Control Centre (SQCC) and other professions who uniquely contributed to shape this work.

Dila Ram Bhandari Program Director Crop Development Directorate Department of Agriculture, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur

Contents

Foreword Contents List of Tables Abbreviations & Acronyms 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Rice in Nepal 1 1.3 Objective of the Study 4 1.4 Approach and Methodology 4 2. AREA, PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY 4 2.1 Major Rice Production Environments 4 2.2 Rice Based Cropping Patterns 5 2.3 Rice Area in Major Agro-Ecological Zone 6 2.4 Trend in Area, Production and Yield 7 2.5 Promotional Program for Rice 8 2.5.1 National Rice Day 8 2.5.2 Fine and Aromatic Rice Mission 9 2.5.3 Subsidy Policy on Improved Rice Seed 9 2.5.4 Mega Rice Production Program 10 3. INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND RICE RESEARCH IN NEPAL 10 3.1 History of Rice Research 10 3.2 Research Approach 12 3.3 Investment in Rice Research 12 3.4 Rice Varietal Development 13 3.5 Potential for Production Increase 15 3.5.1 Comparing the Yield of Rice Crop in the Region 15 3.5.2 Minimizing the Gap between Potential and Actual Yield 15 3.5.3 Potentials for Rice Productivity Growth 16 3.6 Development of Stress Tolerant Rice Varieties in Nepal 17 4. RICE POLICY, CONSUMPTION AND SUPPLY RESPONSE 18 4.1 Rice Policy 18 4.2 Consumption of Rice 20

4.3 Farmers' Supply Response 21 5. PRODUCTION SEASONS AND VARIETAL COVERAGE 23 5.1 Production Season 23 5.1.1 Boro Rice (Winter Rice/Hiunde dhan) 23 5.1.2. Spring Rice (Chaite dhan) 24 5.1.3. Early Rice (Bhadaiyadhan) 24 5.1.4 Upland Rice (Ghaiya dhan) 24 5.1.5 Normal Rice (Main season/Barse dhan) 25 5.1.6. Kharuwan or Double Transplanting of Rice Seedlings 25 6. AREA UNDER IMPROVED OPVS, HYBRIDS AND LOCAL VARIETIES 25 6.1 Distribution of Modern Varieties (MVs) 26 6.1.1 Eastern Development Region 26 6.1.2 Central Development Region 27 6.1.3 Western development Region 29 6.1.4 Mid-western Development Region 30 6.1.5 Far-western development Region 31 6.2 Area under Old and New Improved varieties 31 6.3 Varietal Area Share in Spring (Chaite) Season 33 6.4 Area Share of Hybrids 33 6.5 Area Share of Fine and Aromatic Rice 34 6.6 Area Share by Local Varieties or Landraces 35 6.7 Dominant Improve Rice Varieties in Various Agro-Ecological Zone and Development Regions 36 6.8 Ranking of Dominant Rice Varieties at the National Level 37 6.9 Trans-domain Varietal Movement 38 7. SEED SYSTEM, COSTS AND RETURNS OF RICE 38 7.1 Rice Seed System 38 7.2. Rice Seed Production and Requirement 38 7.3 Costs and Returns of Rice Seed Production 40 8 RICE STRAW PRODUCTION 41 9. MECHANIZATION IN RICE PRODUCTION 42 10. CONSTRAINTS IN RICE PRODUCTION 42 11. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 42 11.1 Conclusion 42 11.2 Recommendation 44 REFERENCES 46

Table of Content

Table 1. Major Rice Production Systems in Nepal Table 2. Rice Area and Production by Ecological Region Table 3. Annual Compound Growth (%) in Area, Production and Yield of Rice in Nepal Table 4. Operational Cost in Rice Research and Variety Development (at 2000/01prices), NARC (in Rs‘000) Table 5. Varieties Released for Different Ecological Regions of Nepal Table 6. Classification of Release Varieties Based on Duration Table 7. Yield of Rice in Nepal, in Some Indian states and Other South Asian Countries 2011/12 Table 8. Yield Gap Between Potential and Actual Yield of Rice Varieties Table 9. Yield of Rice by Seed and Water Technology, 2012/13 Table 10. General Characteristics of Drought and Submergence Varieties Table 11. Elasticity of Income and Prices in the Household Demand for Foods, 2003/04 Table 12. Elasticity of Supply of Rice and Demand for Rice and Competing Crops Table 13. Rice Yield Production Function, 2002 Table 14. Rice Production Area under Different Varieties and Growing Season Table 15. Percentage of Rice Area Covered with Improved , Hybrids and Local Varieties Table 16. Area under Normal Rice Varieties in Eastern Development Region Table 17. Area under Normal Rice Varieties in Central Development Region Table 18. Area under Different Normal Rice Varieties in Western Development Region Table 19.Area under Normal Rice Varieties in Mid-Western Development Region Table 20.Area under Normal Rice Varieties in Far-Western Development Region Table 21: Area under Old and New Improved of Normal Rice Varieties Table 22. Area Share of Major Improve Varieties During Spring (Chaite) Season Table 23. Area under Hybrid Varieties (%) Table 24. Area and Percentage Share of Fine and Arometic Rice (%) Table 25. Dominant Rice Variety and Its Percentage in Different Agroecological Zone and Development Region Table 26: List of the Fifteen Widely Adopted Rice (Improve, Hybrid And Local) Varieties in Nepal ,2012/13 Table 27. Demand and Supply of Breeder Seed of Rice in Nepal (Kg) Table 28. Demand and Supply of Foundation Seed of Rice in Nepal (Mt) Table 29. Production and Requirement (mt) of Improved Seeds and Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) Table 30. The Share of Different Items on Total Cost of Rice Seed Production

Abbreviations & Acronyms

AREP Agriculture Research and Extension Project BS Breeder Seed CBSP Community Based Seed Production Program CDD Crop Development Directorate CSB Community Seed Bank DADO District Agriculture Development Office DISSPRO District Level Seed Self sufficiency Program DoA Department of Agriculture FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FORWARD Forum for Rural Welfare and Agricultural Reform for Development FS Foundation Seed GDP Gross Domestic Product INGER International Network for Genetic Evaluation of Rice IRRI International Rice Research Institute IRTP International Rice Testing Program IYR International Year of Rice LIBIRD Local Initiative for Biodiversity Research and Development masl Meter Above Sea Level MDG Millennium Development Goal MoAD Ministry of Agriculture Development MVs Modern Varieties NARC Nepal Agricultural Research Council NARSC National Agricultural Research and Services Centre NGO Non Governmental Organization NLSS National Living Standard Survey NPC National planning commission NRB Nepal Rastra Bank NRRP National Rice Research Program NSB National Seed Board NSV National Seed Vision OPV Open pollinated varieties PACT Project for Agriculture and Commercial Trade RCC Research Coordination Committee SQCC Seed Quality Control Centre SRR Seed Replacement Rate STRASA Stress Tolerant Rice for Africa and South Asia TYIP Three Year Interim Plan UNGA United Nations General Assembly VDC Village Development Committee

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL: IMPLICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT AND ADOPTION

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Rice (Oriza sativa L.) is a genus of perennial grass in the Poecea family. Until 2011 origin of the domesticated rice was a highly contested issue. However, genetic evidence published by the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) in 2011, testified that all forms of Asian rice, indica and japonica, come from a single domestication that occurred 8, 200 – 13, 500 years ago in China (Molina et al. 2011). Another study conducted by Vaughan et al. in 2012 based on map of rice genome variation, further supported this fact and confirmed the domestication of rice occurred in the Pearl River valley region of China. From there, rice spread to South and Southeast Asia (Harris, 1996). Now rice is cultivated in across various environments ranging from tropical, semi-tropical, and warm temperate. There are about twenty three species of rice out of which only two species have been known for their commercial value. These two species are Oryza sativa (Asian rice) and Oryza glaberrima (African rice). However, Oryza glaberrima is cultivated in the very limited areas of South Africa. Oryza sativa, the most important commercial species of rice is differentiated into three sub species: indica, japonica and javanica based on their commercial production zones. The sub – species, indica refers to the tropical and subtropical varieties grown throughout Indian subcontinents of South and in South-East Asia and Southern China. The variety japonica is grown in temperate areas of Japan, China and Korea, while javanica varieties are grown in Indonesia. Rice is an annual, self-pollinated and semi-aquatic plant. The plants are about 1meter tall but certain deep water varieties can elongate up to 5 meters. Rice has a fibrous root system. The rice stem known as culm is hollow and is made up of nodes and internodes. Each node bears a leaf and bud, which may grow into a shoot or tiller. Primary tillers grow out of the main culm. Panicles bearing tillers are known as fertile or productive tillers. 1.2 Rice in Nepal Nepal is one of the important centers of rice genetic resources. More than 1, 700 rice landraces are reported in Nepal growing from 60 to 3, 050 m altitude (Mallick, 1981). Rice samples of 500 years ago are found at Simraungardh, Bara (ibid). This shows that

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

commercial production of rice in Nepal started some five hundred years ago. These rice diversities and diversity traits found in Nepalese rice can be commercially utilized in rice breeding program to increase yields and develop biotic and abiotic stress tolerant rice varieties. Considering this importance of rice diversities, the National gene Bank of Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) has conserved more than 3, 980 germplasm collected and received from national and international sources (Nepal-1,141, IRRI-2,672, USA-121, Russia-40 and Africa-6). Food grains (rice, maize, wheat, millet and barley) dominate the country’s crop sector accounting for over three-fourth of the gross cultivated area in Nepal (total cultivated area- 3,091,000 ha). These crops - rice, maize, wheat, millet and barley (including buckwheat) account about 42.5, 25.4, 22.6, 8.2 and1.2 percent of the total area under food grains, respectively. Similarly, their respective share on total production is about 51.6, 22.9, 21.5 and 4 percent (MOAD, 2013). Rice ranks the first among cereal crops in terms of area, production and livelihood of the people. As the most important staple food of Nepalese people, rice supplies about 40% of the food calorie intake and contributes nearly 20% to the agricultural gross domestic product (AGDP) and almost 7% to GDP. Rice in Nepal carries special cultural, religious and traditional values in the society. In Nepalese society, rice forms and integral part of one’s life right from the birth rites to the death rites. Annaprasana - the first rice feeding ceremony is observed on or after fifth or sixth month of a child’s birth. This ritualistic ceremony initiates the formal introduction of solid food for the baby. Dashain, the biggest Hindu festival in Nepal is celebrated right after the rice harvesting season. During Dashain, Elders put tika (a mixture of rice, yoghurt and vermilion powder) and Jamara (rice sprouts or rice seedlings) on the forehead of younger relatives to bless them with abundance in the upcoming years. Similarly, during Tihar, sisters put tika on the foreheads of brothers, to ensure their long and safe life. Pindas are balls of cooked rice offered to ancestors during Hindu funeral rites (Antyesti) and ancestor worship (Shraaddha). Nuwagi, a practice of offering new rice harvest to deities by mixing fresh rice grain with curd and spices on the completion of harvest works is common among rice farming communities in Nepal. Rice is one of the key ingredients in worshipping gods and goddesses across all religions in Nepal. Rice farming symbolizes family and societal cohesion in many parts of the country. In Jumla district where rice is cultivated in the highest altitude (3050 m) in the world, farmers prepare for rice cultivation by soaking

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

paddy seeds in cold water on the 24th of March (12 Chaitra). Because of limited livelihood opportunities, a seasonal labor migration of males from Jumla to India is common. It is a social custom that all migrants are expected to return home before the 24th March of each year. Anyone failing to make it to home on the stipulated period is considered as good as dead. In Nepal, rice is grown in three agro-ecological regions (Terai and Inner Terai- 67 to 900; Mid Hills - 1000 to 1500 masl; and High Hills - 1500 to 3050 masl) and three major production environments (irrigated, rain-fed lowland and upland). Nepal is one of the centers of origin and diversity for Asian rice. The country has over 1,700 landraces of rice. The rice cultivated in Chhumjul of Jumla (Chhumchour VDC), at an elevation of 3,050 m is the highest place in the world to produce rice (Bhujel et al., 2011). Jumli Marshi/Kali Marshi, a temperate Javanica variety of indigenous rice, having cold tolerant gene, has been cultivated probably since 1300 A.D., and is believed to have been brought by Saint Chandannath Baba, all the way from India. The Terai region, considered the granary of the country, accounts for about 70 percent of the country’s rice output, while the hills produces 26 percent and the mountain about 4 percent. However, despite its importance in national food security and the economy, still rice crop is grown under rain fed conditions in more than 35 percent of the total rice area. Drought, flooding and insect pests and diseases are major biotic and abiotic constraints to increasing rice yield and production in Nepal. Some general features of rice supply affecting the market are that its production fluctuates over years depending on the weather conditions and production of rice is seasonal. Besides, rice is produced in different qualities which have varying market values. Rice is transplanted with the onset of the monsoon rain between June and August and harvested from September to November. The monsoon rain first arrives in the eastern part of the country and gradually advances to the west. The planting and production of the crop is very much dependent on timing and intensity of the monsoon rain, which is normally active during mid-June until midSeptember. In fully irrigated areas, farmers produce two rice crops in a year. Until early 1980s, Nepal used to export rice to India. Rice used to be exported from Terai region to the nearby Indian markets thanks to easy transportation access whereas supplying rice to the food deficit hills of the country was hampered by the lack of road infrastructure. However, in recent years, rice produced in the Terai is being transported to the hills due to improved road infrastructures and market facilities. Likewise, demand for rice in the hills and mountains are sharply augmented due to increased rice consumption behavior. Furthermore, Nepal has lagged behind in increasing productivity to fulfill the rice demand of the increasing population. As a result, Nepal gradually turned into a net importer of rice. In 2012/13, Nepal imported rice amounting Rs 9.23 billion or 259,045 tons. Imports of rice from India alone

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

amounted to Rs 8.94 billion (MoAD, 2013). At the present context in Nepal, import tariff for processed rice is 8% and unprocessed rice is of 5%. 1.3 Objective of the Study The overall objective of this study is to document the adoption status of rice varieties (local improved and hybrids) by farmers in different ecological and development regions of Nepal. The specific objectives are: i) To assess the area under Modern Varieties (MVs) including hybrids and traditional varieties (local varieties) by districts and ecological and development regions. ii) To analyze the changes in area, production and yield of rice over the year and assess gap between potential and actual yield. iii) To analyze the reasons for adoption and non-adoption of different MVs released during different time periods. iv) To provide recommendations to increase the production and productivity of rice in Nepal. 1.4 Approach and Methodology Crop Development Directorate (CDD) administered a survey among the District Agriculture Development Offices (DADOs) from across all seventy-five districts of Nepal to collect the disaggregated information by varieties and area under MVs, Local varieties and hybrids during August to October, 2014. DADOs organized discussion with the Agriculture Service Centers staffs, Subject Matter Specialists and Key Informants in the district to assess areas covered by MVs, hybrids and Local varieties in the district. The data received from DADOs were compiled and analyzed. In the mean time the district level data and information was triangulated and verified in the CDD by reviewing secondary sources and telephone interviews with the district colleagues. While preparing this report, secondary information from both published and unpublished sources were reviewed. 2. AREA, PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY 2.1 Major Rice Production Environments Rice crop is cultivated under different production environments (irrigated, rain fed and upland) and ecological regions (Terai, Inner Terai, Hills and Mountains) of Nepal. The major rice production systems prevalent in Nepal are summarized in Table 1 below. It can be noted that water regime and ecological types are the major factors explaining the variability among rice production domains. Because of these variations, there are three crop seasons in Terai and river basin ecologies, whereas the mountains retain only one crop season.

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

Table 1. Major Rice Production Systems in Nepal Agro-Ecological Zone Altitude (masl) Water Regime and Land Type Crop Season Terai and Inner Terai Boro rice Spring rice Normal rice Deep water rice 60-200 60-300 30-300 60-100 Irrigated lowland Irrigated lowland Irrigated and rainfed lowland Deepwater lowland October-June March-July June-November May-December Valley & Mid-hills Spring rice Normal rice Upland rice Warm temperate rice 300-900 300-900 300-900 900-1500 Irrigated lowland Irrigated and rainfed lowland Rainfed upland Irrigated and rainfed lowland February-June May-October April-August May-October High Hills Cool Temperate > 1500 Irrigated and rainfed lowland April-October

2.2 Rice Based Cropping Patterns The cropping system differs for Terai, river basins, hills and mountains (agro-ecologies) and the types land (irrigated and rain fed). The rice based cropping system prevalent in Nepal according to Bhandari (1997) is presented below.

i. Terai (<1000 masl) Irrigated area Rainfed area Rice-Wheat-Rice Rice-Fallow-Fallow Rice-Wheat-Fallow Rice-Wheat-Fallow Rice-Wheat-Dhaicha Rice-Lentil-Fallow Rice-Wheat-Mungbean Rice-Rapeseed –Fallow Rice-Maize-Rice Rice- Fallow-Tobacco Rice/Lentil-Rice Rice – Fallow- Jute Rice-Chickpea, linseed Maize-Chickpea, Lentil Rice-Wheat-Maize Rice/Lentil Rice-Potato-Dhaicha Maize-Chickpea + Rapeseed Rice-Peasonpea (in bund)- Wheat Rice- Fallow- Jute Rice-Potato-Maize Jute- Rapeseed- Fallow Rice- Wheat- Jute Jute-Wheat-Fallow Rice – Potato- Jute Jute- Wheat- Fallow Rice- Rapeseed, Pulses- Jute

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

ii. Mid-hill (1000-2000 masl) Irrigated area Rainfed area Rice-Wheat-Fallow Maize/Millet-Wheat Rice-Wheat-Rice Maize/Millet-Fallow Rice-Wheat-Maize Maize + Soybean-Rapeseed-Fallow Rice-Blackgram (in bund)-Wheat Maize-Wheat Rice-Barley Maize-Oat Rice-Maize Maize + Upland Rice Rice-Rapeseed-Maize Maize + Upland Rice- Wheat Rice-Rapeseed-Rice Rice-Potato-Maize iii. High hill (>2000masl) Irrigated area Rainfed area Rice-Barley Maize –Fallow Rice- Necked Barley (Uwa) Maize –Wheat Rice-Wheat Wheat- Fingermillet (2 years cropping pattern) Buckwheat- Necked Barley (Uwa) Maize- Necked Barley (Uwa)-Fingermillet (2 years cropping pattern) Potato + Necked Barley (Uwa) – Fallow (2 years cropping pattern) Maize-Wheat-Fingermillet 2 years cropping pattern) Rice-Fallow-Fingermillet-BarleyWheat (2 years cropping pattern) Potato-Fallow, Potato-Buckwheat, MaizeRapeseed, Uwa-Fallow, Maize-Buckwheat 2.3 Rice Area in Major Agro-Ecological Zone Rice is grown in three distinct major agro-ecological zones, which are Terai and Inner Terai (60-900 masl), Mid hills (900-1,500 masl) and Mountains/high hills (1,500 - 3,050 masl). The Terai and Inner Terai consist of major portion (69.7%) followed by the Mid-hills (25.8%) and the mountains (4.4%) of total rice area in Nepal (Table 2). Based on water regime, prevailing rice ecosystems are irrigated either fully or partially (63.6%), and rain fed (36.4%) of the total rice area (MOAD, 2013). Some part of Terai plains also consist of deep-water rice, which is negligible. The rain fed lowland has diversified rice environments. Table 2. Rice Area and Production by Ecological Region SN Agro-ecology Area (ha) Percentage share 1 Mountain 68,052 4.4 2 Hill 395,493 25.8 3 Terai 1,067,949 69.7 Total 1,531,494 100.0 Source: Data from District Agriculture Development Offices (2014)

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

2.4 Trend in Area, Production and Yield The production of total food grains (rice, maize, wheat, millet and barley) in the country increased by about 2.17 percent per annum during a period from 1970-1994 (Thapa and Rosegrant 1995). This rate was lower than the growth rate of population during this period. Food grain production in the first half of this period grew by less than 0.5 percent per year as aggregate yield showed a negative growth. In the second half, production grew by about 4 percent per year in which the contribution of area expansion (2.5%) was significantly higher than that of yield growth (1.5%). The area, production and yield growth of rice in Nepal by ecological regions from 1974 to 2012 is presented in Table 3. In the last 39 years, the rice area and yield grew annually by only 0.59 and 1.75 percent, respectively. The growth in yield contributed about 72 percent to total production and remaining 28 percent was from area growth. The area growth has been the highest for the mountains (3.10%) followed by the hills (1.96 %) and Terai (0.12%) whereas yield growth was low during that period. In the hills and mountains, expansion in rice area was major factor contributing to production. However, the growth in yield contributed significantly (around 94%) to the total production in Terai. This is true for Terai where green revolution technologies are widely disseminated aided by support services, research and extension systems from Government of Nepal (GoN). Furthermore, several donor funded projects were concentrated in the region. The growth in area was higher during 1974-1990 compared to 1991-2012 period. This shows that the scope of increasing paddy outputs by increasing area is very limited.

Table 3. Annual Compound Growth (%) in Area, Production and Yield of Rice in Nepal

Year Mountains Hills Terai Nepal 1974-1990 Area Production Yield 1991-2012 Area Production Yield 1974-2012 Area Production Yield 3.83 2.94 -0.89 3.05 3.63 0.58 3.10 3.16 0.06 4.54 3.46 -1.08 0.72 2.54 1.82 1.96 2.63 0.67 0.15 1.93 1.78 0.07 1.84 1.77 0.12 1.91 1.79 1.07 2.28 1.21 0.34 2.04 1.70 0.59 2.10 1.51

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

2.5 Promotional Program for Rice Realizing the global concern for food security and poverty reduction, and importance of rice, the 57th session of United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) declared International Year of Rice (IYR) -2004 on 16 December 2002. This was in response to its members’ growing concern over the serious issues facing rice development to cope with increased hunger, malnutrition and poverty worldwide. The theme of the IYR-2004 was “Rice is Life,” which was also observed in Nepal. Since rice is the staple food of more than half of the world’s population, the responsibility of raising awareness on the role of rice for food security; alleviating poverty and eradicating malnutrition rests with the international community. FAO was invited to facilitate IYR-2004 implementation in collaboration with governments, the United Nations Development Program, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Centers and other relevant organizations of the UN system and non-governmental organizations. The UN also declared rice as the crop of the year even in 1966 to combat hunger prevalent in Asia. It was in the IYR that the Government of the Republic of the Philippines declared the month of November each year as the “Rice Awareness” month. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in collaboration with NARC launched Nepal Rice Knowledge Bank (N-RKB) in April 2004. IRRI has developed the Rice Knowledge Bank as a credible, and demand driven repository of practical rice knowledge and training materials to meet the needs of rice researchers and extension workers to better help farmers. Likewise, Non Governmental Organization (NGO) such as Local Initiative for Biodiversity Research and Development (LIBIRD) and Forum for Rural Welfare and Agricultural Reform for Development (FORWARD) has been working in rice varietal development and dissemination in Nepal.

2.5.1 National Rice Day Recognizing the importance of rice in different aspects of life, the Government of Nepal on 14th December 2004 (29th Mangsir 2061 B.S.) officially declared Asar 15 (June 29) of each year as “National Rice Day” with the aim to create awareness about the importance of rice in the national economy and general well being of the people in Nepal. According to Hindu cultural norm, Ashar 15 is considered as the auspicious day to start rice transplanting for the year. The day also marks a famous festival which is celebrated by singing folk songs, dancing and eating flattened rice mixed with curd. The recipe is popularly called as "Dahi Chiura". Since 2004, Nepal is celebrating Rice Day every year covering the themes such as “dhaan jiwan ho” or “Rice is Life (2004 to 2007); “dhanko utpadaktwa badhai kahhdhya surakshyama tewa puryaun” or “Support Food Security by Increasing Productivity of Rice (2008 and 2009)”; “krishi bhumiko sanrachhan sanrachhan garaun, dhanko utpadaktwa badhaun” or “Conserve

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

Agricultural Land and Increase Rice Production (2010); “dhanko utpadanma briddhi, krishi paryatanbata sambriddhi” or “Promote Rice Farming, Ensure Better Agrotourism (2011)”; “dhan khadhya surakshyako lagi baradan,” or “Rice - A Boon for Food Security (2012); “dhan utpadanma briddhi, rastriya arthatantrama samriddhi,” or “Increase Rice Production, Ensure Prosperous Economy (2013)” and “dhan khetima adhunukikaran, khadhanna aayatma nyunikaran,” or "Modernization in Rice Farming, Minimization on Food Import (2014)”; “dhan khetima yantrikaran, utpadan lagatma nyunikaran,” or "Mechanization in Rice Farming, Minimization in Cost of Production". 2.5.2 Fine and Aromatic Rice Mission Nepalese food habit is being gradually shifted towards fine and aromatic rice from coarse rice. As a result rice market transaction is moving to the fine rice. The rice traders try to sell even cheap coarse rice converting into fine rice through high degree of policing for higher price. These days rice traders are attracting consumers by branding any type of rice as Jiramasino (fine rice). Fine and aromatic rice in the Nepalese super market and departmental store is on the rise for past few years. At this backdrop, considering the increasing demand of fine and aromatic rice, GoN has launched the first mission program on “Fine and Aromatic Rice” in 20 districts (Terai-17 and hills-3) from the year 2015. This mission program aims at increasing area, production and productivity of fine and aromatic rice in Nepal and reducing imports. This program targets to cultivate fine and aromatic rice in 7,500 ha and attain yield at 3 t/ha. The major activities of this program are 50% subsidies in foundation seed, 75% in commercial or improved seed, 100% in green manure (Sesbania aculeata) crop seed and provision of Zinc Sulphate for the reclamation of Zinc deficiency in rice field.

2.5.3 Subsidy Policy on Improved Rice Seed Seed production cost as well as the price of quality seed is soaring up to the burden of farmers. This has resulted in the reduced affordability by small-scale farmers. Seed replacement rate could not be increased as envisioned by National Seed Vision (20132025). To tackle this, GoN endorsed a “Working Procedure to Provide Seed Subsidies to Farmers” (KRISHAK HARULAI UNNAT BIU BIJAN KHARID MULYAMA ANUDAN UPALABDHA GARAUNE KARYABIDHI, 2068). On the basis of this guideline and for the first time (2070/71) in Nepal, 1781.340 tons of subsidized cereal seed (35% subsidy) worth NRs 2,01,39,216 was sold to farmers. GoN has prioritized seed multiplication and marketing in active participation of farmers and farmers’ cooperatives with the aim to deploy newly released crop varieties among farmers. GoN has been implementing District level Seed Self sufficiency Program (DISSPRO) since 2055 BS. DISSPRO was initiated in 15 districts of Nepal and now it has been expanded to all the 75 districts. Likewise, GoN has been also implementing

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Community Based Seed Production Program (CBSP) and Community Seed Bank (CSB). Through these programs GoN provides technical, financial and infrastructure supports to the farmers groups and cooperatives. National Seed Company Limited is the sole public seed company in Nepal which was established in 2002 with the aim to produce, procures, process, store and sell seeds of cereals, vegetables and other seeds in the country. 2.5.4 Mega Rice Production Program Amid growing concern of import surge of rice in Nepal, Government of Nepal, through its Policy & Program and Budget Speech for fiscal year 2015/16, has explicitly focused to launch special program on rice in Nepal with the main aim of import substitution. This program, named as Mega Rice Production Program (Brihattar Dhan Utpadan Karyakram), is going to be led by Crop Development Directorate of Department of Agriculture. During the first phase, this program will be launched in 13 districts of five clusters namely; Jhapa, Morang and Sunsari under Eastern cluster, Sarlahi, Bara and Parsa under Central cluster, Rupandehi and Kapilvastu under Western cluster, Dang, Banke and Bardiya under Mid-West cluster and Kalali and Kanchanpur under Far-west cluster. This program comprised of two components, the first is concerned more with increasing productivity of main season rice and the second one is concerned with increasing area and productivity of spring season rice. Year round irrigated areas of concerned districts are the implementing areas of this program where this program will enhance strong collaboration with other line agencies within government and outside government like Department of Irrigation, Nepal Food Corporation, Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry and other private companies. Farmer, who want to expand spring season rice area as per given technical parameter will be awarded with cash incentive as per approved norms. Similarly, this program targets to provide cash inventive to those farmers having higher yield of rice to certain level. A block of five hectare land will be developed as rice production learning center where package of rice technologies will be demonstrated. In addition to this, irrigation scheduling as per need will be ensured with due collaboration with Department of Irrigation and other line offices within the Department of Agriculture. Similarly, subsidy program for mechanization will be specially focused to the implementing areas. 3. INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND RICE RESEARCH IN NEPAL 3.1 History of Rice Research The institution for rice research has been developed with the development of agricultural research system in Nepal. In terms of rice research, many structural changes took place (including institutional development) in Nepal between 1924 and 1997, which can be summarized as follows: 1924: The Department of Agriculture was created and two trial and demonstration

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farms (one each for crops and horticulture) were established in the Kathmandu Valley. 1947: Parwanipur Agriculture Station, Bara (Terai) was established, focusing on the Terai environment for the production of cereal crops in Nepal. 1950s: Additional research stations and farms were established (e.g. at Janakpur, Chitwan, Pokhara) and various disciplinary divisions (e.g. agronomy, pathology and soil) were created to test and modify exotic technologies for application befitting Nepalese conditions. 1966: The Department of Agriculture was dissolved and five new departments were created (Agricultural Education and Research, Agricultural Extension, Horticulture, Livestock and Animal Health, and Fisheries). The Department of Agricultural Education and Research was made responsible for cereal crop research in Nepal. 1971: A separate commodity-specific research program on some major crops was initiated by the Department of Agricultural Education and Research. 1972/73: A ten-year agricultural development plan was formulated; the five departments were merged into the Department of Agriculture within the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Irrigation; and the commodity-specific research programs were expanded to include rice, maize, wheat, citrus and potatoes. Thus, the national rice improvement program was created (later National Rice Research program) as the commodity-specific program for rice to test and develop new highyielding rice technologies in the country. 1985: The National Agricultural Research and Services Centre (NARSC) was created to strengthen and coordinate research activities of the Department of Agriculture. 1987: The services component of NARSC was dissolved and NARSC became the central secretariat of the Research Coordination Committee (RCC) within the Ministry of Agriculture. The Member-Secretary of RCC served as the Executive Director of NARSC. 1990: NARSC became the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), an autonomous institution governed by a board, headed by the minister for agriculture. 1991: The Government of Nepal nominated NARC board members, representing, among others, agricultural research scientists, industrialists and farmers. 1992: By-laws were drafted (for approval by the NARC board members) to give greater flexibility and freedom.

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1997: The National Rice Research (Coordinated) Program (NRRP) moved to Hardinath from Parwanipur. 3.2 Research Approach Nepal has a history of sixty years in formal agricultural research and development. During this period, research system underwent several structural, programmatic and institutional reforms. Present autonomy of the NARC came into existence after the promulgation of NARC Act in 1991 which created a full-fledged national agriculture research institution. NARC's new vision has considered on-farm or farmers’ participatory research: to evaluate, validate and disseminate new technologies. 3.3 Investment in Rice Research The growth of research investment was erratic and inconsistent in rice, maize and wheat during last ten years (2000/01 to 2009/10). The overall research costs in all three commodities had declined in real term over the years (Table 4). During the first three years, higher investment was found compared to latter years. This investment ratio changed in the following years. Research investment varied according to donor’s support in rice. The World Bank supported Agriculture Research and Extension Program (AREP) which had largely contributed in the research cost of rice during the initial three years period. On an average Rs 6077.6 thousand per annum was invested for rice research whereas around 24 percent of this budget (Rs 1458.4 thousand) was allocated for varietal development.

Table 4. Operational Cost in Rice Research and Variety Development (at 2000/01 prices), NARC (in Rs ‘000).

Fiscal Year Total Rice Research Varietal Development (VD) 2000/2001 10190 2446 2001/2002 12737 3057 2002/2003 5031 1207 2003/2004 4459 1070 2004/2005 6069 1457 2005/2006 3937 942 2006/2007 5199 1248 2007/2008 5669 1361 2008/2009 4030 967 2009/2010 3455 829 Average 6077.6 1458.4 Source: Shrestha et al.(2012)

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3.4 Rice Varietal Development Formal rice research in Nepal started in 1951 with the collection of 930 rice germplasm from across 54 districts and their evaluation at Parwanipur and Khumaltar (Mallick, 1981, Bhattarai, 1969). Initially, exotic rice varieties from Taiwan were introduced, evaluated and were found to be high yielding in the Kathmandu valley. This inspired to focus on rice varietal research and development. Subsequently, introduction and evaluation of indica rice lines were carried out since 1959 at Parwanipur Agriculture Station. After testing various exotic materials, CH-45 was recommended as the first modern (new) variety in Nepal (see Annex 1). This variety is still popular in various rice growing areas where double rice crop is commonly cultivated. Some indica type Taiwanese rice lines were introduced and tested in 1966. Out of these, Taichung Native-1 gained popularity as Taichung rice in the Tarai region of Nepal and remained popular for a long time. Flow of materials from the IRRI was the main source for varietal improvement. As a result, IR8 was released in 1968 as the main season rice for irrigated ecosystems. Four Taiwanese varieties (Taichung-176, Chainung-242, Tainan-1, Chainan-2) were also released for mid-hill condition (900-1500 m.). Similarly, IR20 and IR22 were recommended. Other rice lines were under testing at Parwanipur before the inception of the coordinated rice program. Parwanipur station was considered representative site for the entire Terai including river basins (sub tropical region) and low hills while the majority of the rice varietal development and testing for most of the mid hills (warm temperate region) and shuttle breeding for Jumla valley (2500 m) was done at the Khumaltar station (NARC,1997). Exchange of germplasm with the IRRI started in 1968. In 1972 Nepal began to test IRRI’s yield nurseries to meet specific system needs through the International Rice Testing Program (IRTP) and subsequently through the International Network for Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER) after its establishment in 1975. Introduction, evaluation and release of exotic rice varieties from IRRI and other sources is still very important in the formal rice breeding system in Nepal and accounts for nearly 80% of all the releases (Annex 1). Of the exotic germplasm, introductions from IRRI contributed 33%, India-18%, Taiwan-8% and China-6%, Sri Lanka-6% and others 9%. However, Masuli (Mayang Ebos 80*2/Taichung 65), the only introduction from Malaysia, has been the most popular and widely grown rice variety in Nepal. National Rice Improvement Program was established in 1972 at Parwanipur as its headquarters. Since then crossing programs were started at Parwanipur and Khumaltar to develop varieties for Terai and mid hill environments, respectively. Crossing works have also been carried out at Lumle Agricultural Research Station to develop varieties suitable for cool temperate region of the country. As of 2014, a total of 73 rice varieties have been released in Nepal. Out of them, about 62 have been released for main-season (Barkhe) and 11 for spring season. Around 60% of the varieties released are for Terai and inner Terai, 25% for the hills and 8% for the

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mountains. The remaining 7% of the released varieties are for Terai/inner Terai and mid-hills; and hills and high hills (Table 5). Most of them do best under irrigated condition. The detail description about the varieties is presented in Annex1. In recent years hybrid rice varieties developed in China and India is being adopted in the Terai and accessible areas of hills. Hybrid technology appears to be a feasible and readily adoptable technology to augment rice production in Nepal. However, until now Nepal has not been able to develop its own rice hybrids. National Seed Board (NSB) data shows that it has registered 18 rice varieties and 17 of them are hybrids (3 from China and 14 from India). Details are given in Annex 2. Table 5. Varieties Released for Different Ecological Regions of Nepal.

S.N. Ecological Regions No. of Variety Percent 1. Terai and Inner Terai 44 60.27 2. Mid-hills 18 24.66 3. High Hills/Mountain 6 8.22 4. Terai & Mid hills/foot hills 4 5.48 5. Mid hills & High hills 1 1.37 TOTAL 73 100.00

The varieties released by the NSB have been categorized into 3 groups based on the days of maturity. The varieties that mature in less than or up to 125 days are called as short duration; those maturing between 126-140 days are called as medium duration; and those taking more than 140 days to mature as long duration. The Table 6 presents the percentage of released varieties under different categories. This shows that the average duration of the variety is 141 days of which 53.42%, 26.03% and 20.55% of the varieties belong to long, medium and short duration category, respectively. The average duration of the varieties recommended for Chaite season is shorter (126 days) than the main season varieties. The average duration of maturity in case of varieties recommended for mountains is the longest (178 days) followed by the hills (147 days) and the Terai/Inner Terai (135 days). Table 6. Classification of Release Varieties Based on Duration. Duration No. Percent Average Days Short 15 20.55 120 Medium 19 26.03 133 Long 39 53.42 153 Total 73 100.00 141

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3.5 Potential for Production Increase 3.5.1 Comparing the Yield of Rice Crop in the Region The yield of rice grown in the South Asian nations and the yield in Nepal’s Terai and some states of India for the year 2011/12 is presented in Table 7. The yield of rice is the lowest in Nepal among the South Asian countries. Comparing Nepal’s Terai with the Indian states, the yield level of Nepal is far below than the Punjab, an advanced Indian state in terms of agricultural development, while it is higher than the lagging Indian states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Table 7. Yield of Rice in Nepal, Some Indian States and Other South Asian Countries 2011/12.

Country (mt/ha) Bangladesh 4.420 Pakistan 4.067 Srilanka 3.885 Bhutan 3.689 India 3.721 Uttar Pradesh 2.358 Punjab 3.741 Bihar 2.155 Nepal 3.312

3.5.2 Minimizing the Gap between Potential and Actual Yield: As of 2014, NARC has developed 73 varieties and NSB has registered 17 varieties of rice mostly developed by India based multinational seed companies. In case of rice it is one plus variety release per year. The number is very small considering the fact that over 2,500 landraces were grown in Nepal before the green revolution period and also a small village of Nepal harbors 10-70 rice varieties. Some of the varieties being considered as improved had been released some 35 years ago. The genetic quality of such stocks may be questionable. The formal seed sources and the seed production programs of the government are able to meet 6-8 percent of the seed requirement in case of major cereal crops. The potential and actual yield for some of the major rice varieties is presented in Table 8. This shows the number of varieties developed for different ecological regions, their potential and farm level yield calculated based on the information of NARC (2014).

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Table 8. Yield Gap between Potential and Actual Yield of Rice Varieties.

Differences between potential and actual yield

S. N. Regions No. of varieties

Av Potential Yield(MT/ Ha)

Farm Level Yield (MT/Ha) MT/ha % 1 Terai/Inner Terai 24 4.23 3.29 0.94 29 2 Hills 10 6.32 3.06 3.26 107 4 High hills 3 5.40 2.09 3.31 158 Overall 37 4.89 3.17 1.72 54 Source: Calculated based on NARC (2014) and MOAD (2013) The potential yield of rice varieties comes to be 4.89 mt per hectare. The yield gap between the potential yield and the actual yield at the farm level is 54 percent per unit of land. This demands an in depth analysis of underlying causes. This also indicates a prospect of increasing the food production through productivity increment through genetic and agronomic means. Most of the rice varieties developed by NARC have high yield potential but large gap exists between research station and farmers’ field. In order to strengthen synergism among disciplines, the National Rice Research Program (NRRP) has started strategic research for accelerating rice breeding program by conducting conventional breeding in combination with molecular tools, resource conservation technologies, integrated disease and pest management system, integrated plant nutrient management system, post harvest technology and value addition, socioeconomic and policy research, participatory technology assessment and transfer, and human resource development (NRRP, 2009). The commodity research programs throughout the country under NARC are preparing to boost up crop production by developing site-specific, advanced, and affordable agronomic technologies.

3.5.3 Potentials for Rice Productivity, Growth. Considerable increase in the production of rice is possible through improvements in productivity rather than by area expansion. The differences in the yield of rice due to changes in the types of seeds and irrigations are presented in the Table 9. The figure in the last column shows that the yield levels gradually increase as we move up in the technology ladder from rice production under the local seed without irrigation to the improved seed with irrigation. 92 percent of the area is shown with the improved varieties of rice. However, seed replacement is significantly low among the improved seed growers. Therefore, the rice production might be increased by further expanding

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the area under improved seeds and by increasing seed replacement rate. This talks about the performance of Nepalese improved rice varieties vis-à-vis others, and the agricultural research systems' capacity to supply more rice varieties. Meanwhile, area under irrigated and un-irrigated is 63 and 37% respectively. The effects of technology to changes in the yield of rice and wheat are similar. Under the rice-wheat cropping patterns, as we move up from local variety-unirigated to improved variety-irrigated farming, the grains yields go up from 1.86 mt to 3.72 mt (pooled average 3.17 mt). Table 9. Yield of Rice by Seed and Water Technology, 2012/13. S.N. Farming conditions Cropped area (%) Yield (mt/ha) 1 Local seed, un-irrigated 5.35 1.86 2 Improved seed, un-irrigated 31.03 2.35 3 Local seed, irrigated 2.21 2.54 4 Improve seed, irrigated 61.41 3.72 Pooled 100 3.17 A Improved seeds 92.44 3.26 B Local seeds 7.56 2.06 Pooled 100.0 3.17 Source: MOAD (2013)

3.6. Development of Stress Tolerant Rice Varieties in Nepal Drought and submergence are two most important abiotic stresses causing significant yield losses across the country especially in the rain-fed rice environments. In Nepal, 30% and 15 % of total rice cultivated areas are prone to drought and submergence respectively (Gumma et al 2011). Considering this reality, rice breeding focusing on attaining a high grain yield (GY) under drought and submergence has been initiated in Nepal since 2007 with active collaboration of IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines. NRRP has developed and released seven varieties of drought tolerant and two varieties of submergence tolerance (Table 10). The varieties: Shkha- 1, Shkha- 2, Shkha- 3, Shkha- 4, Shkha- 5, Shkha- 6, Swarna Sub- 1, Samba Mansuli Sub - 1 were released in Nepal with the support of Stress Tolorent Rice for Africa and South Asia (STRASA) Project. These are verities are getting popular in rainfed ecosystems of Nepal.

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Table 10. General Characteristics of Drought and Submergence Varieties.

SN Variety name Release Year

Days to maturity

Grain types

Yield Potential kg/ha

Remarks Recommended domain

1 Tarahara‐1 2009 125 Medium

4.2‐4.5 Suited under aerobic and drought tolerant

Terai and eastern Terai

2 Sukkhadhan‐1 2011 125 Medium

3.2‐4.2 Drought tolerant

East and west Terai, Inner Terai and mid hill upto 500 masl

3 Sukkhadhan‐2 2011 125 Medium

3.3‐4.5 Drought tolerant

East and west Terai, Inner Terai and mid hill upto 500 masl

4 Sukkhadhan‐3 2011 125 Medium fine

3.6‐4.5 Drought tolerant

East and west Terai, Inner Terai and mid hill upto 500 masl

5 Sukkhadhan‐4 2014 125 Medium slender

2.7‐4 Drought tolerant

Unirrigated area of Terai and Inner Terai, mid hill 500 masl

6 Sukkhadhan‐5 2014 125 Medium fine

3.2‐4.2 Drought tolerant with Swarna 7 background

Unirrigated area of Terai and Inner Terai, mid hill 500 masl

7 Sukkha Dhan 6 2014 125 Medium fine

3.0‐4.0 Drought and submergence tolerant

Unirrigated area of Terai and Inner Terai, mid hill 500 masl

8 Swarna Sub 1 2011 150 Medium fine

5.0 submergence tolerant

Terai

9 Samba Mansuli Sub 1

2011 140 fine 4.0‐5.0 submergence tolerant

Inner Terai

Source: NRRP, Hardinath (2014)

4. RICE POLICY, CONSUMPTION AND SUPPLY RESPONSE

4.1 Rice Policy The increase in rice production and productivity has been emphasized to promote food security. The food security concern in Nepal started since the Sixth Plan (1980-85) in order to fulfill the basic needs of people. Since then, the policies have emphasized in increasing agricultural production, income generating programs, and providing food subsidy in remote areas. Pursuant to the World Food Summit Declaration 1996, Millennium Development Goal

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(MDG) targets (1990-2015), the government adopted the food and nutrition security agenda in the Ninth Plan (1997-2002). Food Sovereignty has been recognized in the interim Constitution of Nepal 2007 under Article 8 (3) which deals with the fundamental rights of the people. The constitution recognizes food sovereignty as the fundamental rights of people. The Agricultural Perspective Plan (APP) (1995-2015) has an overall goal to accelerate agricultural growth from about three percent in the first half of 1990's to five percent during the 20 year plan period. It emphasizes realigning investment in selected priority inputs and outputs; it is expected to generate strong multiplier effects on growth of output and employment in non-farm sectors too. The National Agricultural Policy 2004 has the primary goal of attaining food security and improving livelihoods through the transformation of subsistence based agriculture into a commercialized and competitive system. The Three Year Interim Plan (TYIP) (20072010) aims at strengthening various aspects of food and nutritional security through increased agricultural production, equitable distribution, and reduced vulnerability of disadvantaged households. The Three Years Interim Plan (TYP-2010/11 to 2012/13) agricultural sector objectives are to increase the production and productivity of agriculture, to ensure food and nutrition security, to transform the subsistence agricultural sector into a commercial enterprises. The Thirteenth Plan (2013/14 to 2015/16) has the objectives of increasing the production and productivity of crops and livestock products; making crops and livestock products competitive and commercial; developing and disseminating environment-friendly agrotechnologies. The major strategies to be adopted are to ensure food security by producing crops and livestock products through the commercialization of agriculture, diversification and quality enhancement of products, development of rural infrastructure, and mechanization of agricultural processes and increase the competitiveness of agricultural and livestock products by reducing the costs of their production. The major programs to be implemented to increase the production and productivity are - to avail production inputs and factors (?) on cost sharing basis, establishment of community seed processing facilities, establishment of seed self-sufficiency fund and promote the production of fine and aromatic rice for import substitution. The plan targets to increase the production of food grains by 108, 81,000 mt at the end of 2015/16 as against the base year’s (2012/13) quantity of 87, 38, 000 mt. The Plan has also targeted to increase the agri - GDP annual growth rates to 4.5 percent (NPC, 2014).

The Thirteenth Plan has separate chapter for Food and Nutrition Security. Its objectives are:

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• To improve the consumption of food in sufficient quantity and nutrient value. To identify areas and communities vulnerable to food insecurity and increase their access to nutritious foodstuffs. The major strategies adopted to achieve the objectives are: • Make necessary arrangements in food and nutrition insecure areas and communities for solving the food crisis in short and the long term. • Implement targeted programs for raising the production of suitable high-value commodities in those areas most vulnerable to food insecurity. • Ensure food security (food availability, stability in use, and continuity) through the protection, promotion, efficient use of agro-biodiversity, the development and expansion of climate change-adaptive technologies. • Create an efficient regulatory mechanism to ensure that foodstuff is clean and healthy. 4.2 Consumption of Rice Rice is a preferred food for the almost entire population in the country. The National Living Standard Survey (NLSS) of the year 2010/11 showed that some 16 percent of the people in the country had inadequate consumption of food during 2010/11 compared to 31 percent during 2003/04 (CBS, 2011). As per the Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB, 2008), the average monthly expenditure of the households in Nepal stood at Rs. 15130; of which the value of grains and cereal products accounted for 11.94 percent. This was higher in rural area (14.29%) compared with urban area (10.56%). The rice supplies around 39 percent of energy, 29 percent of protein and 7 percent fat in the Nepalese diet. About 104 kg of milled rice is available per year per person in Nepal (MOAD, 2012). The estimates of elasticity of household consumption demand functions for rice in Table 11 shows that people have very strong preference for rice. The demand for fine rice will increase by 0.9 percent with every percent increase in the income, whereas the demand for maize would decline with rise in income. On the other hand, the demand for rice with respect to its prices is highly negative. Thus, the rise in the prices of rice may increase the welfare of the farmers depending on how competitive the markets are. But the non-farm communities such as those living in urban areas or doing non-farm occupations will suffer greatly thanks to the food prices. Furthermore, rice eating culture is in increasing in hills and mountains where food security is a burning issue.

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Table 11. Elasticity of Income and Prices in the Household Demand for Foods, 2003/04.

Elasticity Coefficients with respect to. Food Items log per capita income log average price

Coefficient of determination (R2)

F-ratio

Fine rice 0.922 -4.003 0.355 120.6 Coarse rice -0.541 na 0.355 103.6 Beaten rice 0.283 -2.116 0.289 73.3 Maize Na -9.937 0.475 118.8 Maize flour -0.294 -4.271 0.459 133.9 Wheat flour Na 3.102 0.246 68.2 Millet -0.240 -5.318 0.399 113.8 Black gram (Mas) 0.485 -7.841 0.259 63.0 Lentil Musuro Na na 0.297 88.0 Red gram (Rahar) 0.315 -12.022 0.299 73.4 Horse gram (Chana) 0.508 -22.408 0.203 63.4 Potato 0.259 na 0.120 29.1 Source: Thapa (2008) (Note: NA refers to not applicable at 5% level of significance in the stepwise regression process. The regressions equations had 3,911 degrees of freedoms. Source: Data based on NLSS 2003/04).

4.4 Farmers' Supply Response The cropping intensity has increased while the number of animals for providing manures has decreased. So the supply of plant nutrients largely rest on the import of chemical fertilizers. The Government procured fertilizer used to be solely distributed by the Agriculture Inputs Corporation (AIC) till November 1997. The policy used to provide the price and transport subsidies in fertilizer sales to promote fertilizer use. The general policy was to maintain fertilizer prices about 15 to 20 percent higher than India to prevent informal re-exports. During November 1997 to November 1999, the government gradually phased out the price subsidies. In late 1999, the government enacted a Fertilizer Regulations for fair trade of fertilizers and completely liberalized the fertilizer trade. Thus, the government gradually encouraged private sector in the deal of chemical fertilizer, whose share rose to around 85% percent of total supply in 2005/2006. The monitoring system was weak, which led to the import of low quality fertilizer to the detriment of productivity and soil fertility. The share of private sector has gradually declined and remained negligible in the recent years. The government has

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reintroduced the fertilizer subsidy and the level of subsidy differs with the type of fertilizer. It is estimated that around 40% of income from the fertilizer sale is used for rice cultivation. The removal of subsidy of fertilizer has negative impact on the supply of rice. A study has shown that the elasticity of rice supply/ production with respect to the fertilizer prices negative, that is, (-) 0.40 (Table 12). This is to say if the fertilizer prices were to rise by one percent, the production of rice would decline by 0.4 percent. The fertilizer subsidies in neighboring countries have further weakened the position of the Nepalese farmers (Thapa and Pokhrel, 2003). Table 12. Elasticity in Supply of Rice and Demand for Rice and Competing Crops.

Elasticity of Rice Production/ Supply with Respect to S.No. Main Crops and competing crops for area Own-price elasticity Fertilizer/ feed price elasticity 1 Rice 1.01 -0.40 2 Sugarcane 0.60 -0.46 A study by the ADB team estimated an econometric production function for rice yields (Table 13). The production function for rice yield with respect to fertilizers was a cubic equation with constant term as 2.6 mt/ ha, first slope coefficient 11.23 kg rice / kgfertilizer (NPK) and third term as (-) 0.04 kg-rice/ kg- NPK (where NPK is nitrogen, phosphorous and fertilizer). This study assumed that farmers would use some 145 kg of NPK per hectare to get maximum yield of rice even without fertilizer uses. But if we consider the marginal value productivity of fertilizer uses, farmers can hardly apply 6973 kg of fertilizer per hectare if the unit price of fertilizers is around Rs. 15 per kg. The farmers are presently using nearly this quantity of fertilizers through formal and informal sources. Hence unless the condition of trade improves with farmers in terms of the output/input prices, they may not supply any more output. Table 13. Rice Yield Production Function.

Coefficients (Kg/ Ha) t-Static Average Intercept 2,654.2 102 NPK 11.23 5.3 33 (NPK)2 -0.038 -2.7 2,705 Irrigation 652.2 8.0 0.67 Variety -507.6 -6.2 0.65 Mountain -1,086.0 -10.0 Hill -181.2 -2.0 Adjusted R2 0.33 Average response to nutrients 85 Elasticity of yield response to nutrients 0.11 Observations 719 Source: Selected Indicators from ANZDEC (2002).

5. PRODUCTION SEASONS AND VARIETAL COVERAGE The total rice area reported by the DADOs for the present study is higher compared to the area estimated by MoAD. This has been adjusted with the area for the year 2011/12 reported by MoAD (15,31,493 ha.). The adjusted figure for both the season by the districts and region is presented in Annex 3. Out of the total rice area in Nepal (1,531,494 ha), 70 percent is in the Terai, 26 percent in the hills and 4 percent in the mountains. About 92 % of rice area falls under main (Barkhe) season while 7% is under spring (Chaite) season. Boro rice and Bhadaiya rice is also practiced in few districts of Terai occupying less than 1% of the total area. Likewise, improved OPVs occupy about 82.4% followed by local (10.2%) and hybrids (7.4%). (Table 14). Table 14. Rice Production Area under Different Varieties and Growing Season.

SN Variety Main Season Spring Season

Boro and Bhadaiya rice Total Percentage 1 Improved 1152314 101265 8096 1261675 82.4 2 Hybrid 112295 1469 126 113890 7.4 3 Local 146319 9579 32 155929 10.2 Total 1410928 112313 8253 1531494 Percentage 92.1 7.3 0.5 100.0 100.0 5.1 Production Season 5.1.1 Boro Rice (Winter Rice/Hiunde dhan) The term ‘boro’ originated from the Sanskrit word ‘Borob’ refers to a special rice cultivation practice in low lying areas during November to May - taking an advantage of the residual water in the field, longer moisture retention capacity of the soil and surface water stored in the nearby ditches. In order to bring out a package of practices for farmers, researches on different aspects of boro rice cultivation have been conducted at Regional Agriculture Research Station, Parwanipur. The crop is sown in second to third week of November, transplanted in the first to the second week of February, and harvested in the last week of May to the first week of June. The plantation of Boro rice has been reported from the Morang district in about 1, 216 hectares. The farmers have grown Hardinath-1, Ghutaraj, China Bora varieties etc. There is about 7-10 per cent lowland areas in Nepal, which remains fallow after the harvest of normal rice due to excess moisture and water stagnation and is not used for any winter crops. In such cases, boro rice (winter rice) is the best alternative to utilize the fallow land before the next rice crop. Doing so would double the rice production in such areas which have natural water source.

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SN Variety Main Season Spring Season

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

5.1.2. Spring Rice (Chaite dhan) The crop is sown in the last week of February to the first week of March and follows transplanting of 30-40 days old seedlings. The month of transplanting coincides with the Nepali month “Chaitra” and so is named as Chaite rice. This crop also needs assured irrigation from various sources. In total, 11 rice varieties are released for this production environment. The Chaite rice is reported to be cultivated in 50 districts (mountain-5, hills-29 and Terai 16 districts) in an area of 1, 12, 313 hectares. Out of this, the share of OPVs, hybrids and local is 90.16, 1.31 and 8.53 percent, respectively. The coverage area of spring rice for mountain, hill and Terai is found to be 5.48, 24.85 and 69.67 percent, respectively. The Chaite rice in foot hills/valleys and the hills is 2-4 weeks earlier than in Terai and inner Terai. It is grown mostly in perennial source irrigation system. River basin areas of mid-hill region throughout the country are potential belt for growing this crop. The crop is also called “Hiunde” rice as it is sown in winter months (first to second week of February). The most popular MVs cultivated are Hardinath-1, Chaite-2, Chaite-4, CH-45, and others. The Hardinath-1 is planted in Jhapa, Bara and other eastern and central Terai districts while the Chaite-2 is cultivated in Morang, Jhapa, Sunsari, Bara, Dhanusha and Chitwan districts and CH-45 in hilly districts of central and western region. 5.1.3. Early Rice (Bhadaiya dhan) Bhadaiya rice is a system of producing early maturity rice to adopt rice-potato, ricevegetable or mustard based cropping patterns. However, due to availability and adoption of early rice varieties, the concept of Bhadaiya rice is almost misplaced these days. The cropping season starts from the last week of May to the first week of June depending on the onset of first monsoon shower and the crop is harvested around midSeptember of the Nepali month, “Bhadra” which denotes the naming as Bhadaiya rice. The cropping season is 105-120 days. Farmers transplant rice either with rain water or supplemental irrigations from tube wells or river canal irrigation system that entirely depends on rainfall. Bhadaiya rice covers nearly 7,037 ha. The short duration varieties recommended for Chaite season are grown in this system. Hardinath-1, Bindeswari, and hybrid varieties such as US 312, Arise 6444, Tej, China Boro and Philips are the varieties grown. 5.1.4 Upland rice (Ghaiya dhan) This is one of the Nepalese rice production systems rooted as a culture especially in hill, mountains, foothills and some parts of Terai. The rice grown in upland condition is called Ghaiya rice. It is grown in rain-fed, naturally well-drained soils without inundation. Plenty of local varieties are grown in upland ecosystem. The commonly cultivated variety Ghaiya -2 is a local selection for upland condition. Upland rice varieties are early maturing type and require less water. This is usually broadcasted in pre-monsoon (May - June) and harvested before August. The first weeding is carried

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out 20-25 days after seeding and second weeding is followed 25-30 days after first weeding. Farmers grow the rice crop alone or it is in mixed with maize in some parts of hilly regions. For example upland rice with maize production system can be observed in Doti district. Grain yield of upland rice varieties varies from 1 to 2 Mt/ha depending on soil fertility. These days this rice production practices is gradually declining due to low yield, availability of irrigation for fresh vegetable production, labour intensiveness, and disappearance of landraces from farmers' fields. In addition, weeds are the most serious biological constraint to sustain upland rice production. The Blast and bacterial leaf blight are also the major limiting factors for the production of upland rice. 5.1.5 Normal Rice (Barse dhan / Agahani dhan) The normal rice (main season) occupies 92.1 percent (1.41 million ha) out of the total area under rice (1.53 million ha). Out of this, about 81.67 percent area is under MVs, 7.96 percent under hybrid and 10.37 percent is under local varieties. The cropping season starts from June and ends in October to November. Rice varieties with 120-160 days of maturity are grown in this system depending upon the land type and the prevailing cropping system. In total, 15 varieties are recommended for this system. Sabitri, Radha 4, Radha-12,Hardinath-1,Swarna sab-1, Makwanpur-1, Bindeshwori, Ramdhan, Masuli and Indian varieties such as Sona Masuli, Sarju-52, Sona Mansuli, Ranjit and Kanchhi Masuli (unidentified source) are the popular varieties in this system. Some farmers also grow Lalka Basmati, Pokhreli Jethobudho, Khumal-4 and Sunaulo Sugandha as fine/aromatic rice varieties. Different types of traditional varieties are also grown as their names vary by locations. Pokhreli Masino, Basmati, Anpjhutte, Lalka Basmati are the popular traditional fine aromatic rice varieties whereas Ate, Belguti,Tauli, Anadi, Marsi, Makarkodo, Ghaiya, Gola Dhan, Jarneli etc. are the coarse to medium traditional varieties. 5.1.6. Kharuwan or Double Transplanting of Rice Seedlings Double Transplanting of rice seedlings are practiced in the central Terai districts- Bara, Parsa, Rautahat, Dhanusha etc of Nepal. In this agronomic management, farmers transplant the 20-25 days seedlings into another seedbed either for hardening them or to obtain sufficient time in preparing main field and increase system productivity. Farmers usually do this practice in local aromatic rice cultivars such as Kalanamak and some Agahani varieties.

6. AREA UNDER IMPROVED OPVS, HYBRIDS AND LOCAL VARIETIES A total of 270 rice varieties including improved, hybrids and local are grown in different ecological zone and development regions of Nepal. Out of these varieties 157, 59 and 54 are local, improved and hybrids, respectively. On an average, the improved OPVs occupy nearly 82% percent of the total rice area. This consists about 60.1%, 71.4 % and 87.9% in the mountains, hills and Terai respectively. Similarly, 7.4% of total rice area in Nepal is covered with the hybrid rice varieties. Those hybrids include both registered and illegally imported seeds from India and China. The share of local

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Improve d Varieties

Hybrid Varieties

Local

Varieties

Improved Varieties

Hybrid

Varieties

Local

Varieties

Improved Varieties

Hybrid

Varieties

Local

Varieties

Improved Varieties

Hybrid

Varieties

Local Varieties

1 Eastern 47.0 0.0 53.0 49.2 0.3 50.5 93.2 0.8 5.9 81.1 0.7 18.2 2 Central 71.0 0.9 28.1 82.6 10.6 6.9 94.6 2.3 3.1 91.0 4.0 4.9 3 Western 75.2 5.2 19.7 65.5 33.5 1.0 69.4 22.1 8.5 4 Mid‐western 56.4 0.0 43.6 81.3 6.4 12.3 81.4 17.1 1.5 80.1 13.4 6.5 5 Far‐western 74.7 0.7 24.6 80.1 0.0 19.9 97.6 1.1 1.4 91.8 0.8 7.4 Nepal 60.1 0.4 39.5 71.4 4.8 23.8 87.9 8.9 3.3 82.4 7.4 10.2

Mountain Hills TeraiSN Development regions

Total

varieties is the highest in the mountain (39.5%) followed by hills (23.8%) and Terai (3.3%). Among the development regions, the share of the local varieties is the lowest in the central (4.9 %) and the highest in the eastern region (18.2%). Table 15. Table 15. Percentage of Rice Area Covered with Improved, Hybrids and Local Varieties (Total area: 1,531,494 ha)

Note: Rice is not cultivated in the western mountain region of Nepal 6.1 Distribution of Modern Varieties (MVs) As of December 2014, eighty rice varieties are released (number 62) and registered (number 18) in Nepal (see Annex 1 for detail). Among these varieties, 63 are OPVs and 17 are hybrids. All of the hybrids are developed in India and China. GoN Nepal has banned 11 varieties released during 70s and 80s. Out of those varieties, a total of 55 varieties are cultivated in Nepal, out of which 46 are developed in Nepal and rests are of Indian and Chinese origin. In some cases, the name for the same variety might have differed by locations. Among the Indian Varieties, Sona Masuli was released in 1982 from Andhra Pradesh which matures in 145 days with a yield potential of 5 mt/ha and Ranjit, a variety prominent in submergence-prone environments in Assam and West Bengal maturing in 155-160 days was released in 1992. Similarly, Samba Mahsuri (Sawa Masuli) which matures in 140-145 days, was released from Andhra Pradesh in 1986 and notified by Central Variety Release Committee in 1988. The Sarju-52 was released in 1979 from Uttar Pradesh of India. The exact source of origin of Kanchhi Masuli in India and its release status are not known. Kanchhi Masuli has been grown in eastern Nepal since the early 1990s and it is popular among farmers due to its wide adaptation, good yield, and medium grain quality. Likewise, Rambilas a popular variety is believed to be the sister line of Radha-11 (Pandey et al., 2012).

6.1.1 Eastern Development Region (EDR) The distribution of the varieties by ecological regions and their area share is presented in Table 16. In total, 27 registered and 7 non registered varieties are reported to be cultivated in this region. In some cases, the name(s) of the varieties have not been

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specified and have been classified as “others”. In the eastern mountain, the Khumal-4 is very popular occupying around 25.04 percent of the area under MVs, followed by Chhomrong local (11.49%) and Mansuli (9.30%). In the hills, the top three popular varieties are Khumal-4 (19.78%) followed by Mansuli (17.18%) and Radha-12 (7.33%) while in the Terai Sona Mansuli leads the highest coverage (23.03%) followed by Radha-12 (15.21%) and Kanchhi Mansuli (13.95%). Table 16. Area under Normal Improved Rice Varieties in Eastern Development Region Mountain Hill Terai Varieties Area % area Varieties Area % area Varieties Area % area Khumal-4 2753 25.04 khumal- 4 9329 19.78 Sona mansuli ## 63868 23.03 Chhomrong 1263 11.49 Mansuli 8102 17.18 Radha- 12 42196 15.21 Mansuli 1022 9.30 Radha- 12 3458 7.33 Kanchhi mansuli 38682 13.95 Sabitri 943 8.58 Makawanpur-1 3444 7.30 Ranjit ## 28936 10.43 Radha-12 825 7.51 Kanchhi mansuli 3160 6.70 Mansuli 27458 9.90 Hardinath-1 820 7.46 Tarahara-1 3146 6.67 Lalka basmati 16849 6.07 Mithila 736 6.70 Khumal- 8 2784 5.90 Swarna sab- 1 15624 5.63 Loktantra 736 6.70 Khumal- 10 2756 5.84 Hardinath- 1 10008 3.61 Makawanpur-1 695 6.32 Ranjit 2145 4.55 BB- 11## 6350 2.29 Kanchhi mansuli ## 244 2.22 Hardinath -1 2134 4.52 Tarahara- 1 5011 1.81 Others 955 8.69 Sabitri 1824 3.87 Rampur mansuli 4658 1.68 Radha- 4 947 2.01 RP- 1017## 4439 1.60 Rambilash## 752 1.59 Sabitri 4164 1.50 Sukhkha- 2 597 1.27 Anamol mansuli 1975 0.71 Loktantra 590 1.25 Barse- 3004 1938 0.70 Swarna sab -1 535 1.13 Sukkha-3 1119 0.40 Khumal- 2 444 0.94 Barse- 2014 1097 0.40 Taichung-176 281 0.60 Sawa mansuli 1035 0.37 Chomromg 262 0.55 Mithila 742 0.27 Radha- 17 200 0.42 Makawanpur- 1 451 0.16 Ghaiya- 2 123 0.26 Others 432 0.16 Radha- 7 102 0.22 Sukkha-2 199 0.07 Others 56 0.12 Sukkha-1 150 0.05 Total 10992 100.00 47171 100.00 277381 100.00 ## Indian/non-registered varieties

6.1.2 Central Development Region (CDR) In the CDR, 32 registered and 4 non registered varieties are reported to be cultivated (Table 17). Among them, Makwanpur-1(29.18%), Khumal-4 (29.05%) and Khumal-10 (15.78 %) are popular varieties in the mountains occupying about three-fourths of the total area. Similarly, dominant varieties such as Makwanpur-1(24.81%), Sabitri (21.67%) and Khumal-4 (18.98%) share nearly 65 percent of the area in the hills. On the

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other hand, Sona Masuli occupies about 48.82 percent of the total area in the Terai followed by Sabitri (10%) and Hardinath-1 (8.94%). Table 17. Area under Normal Improved Rice Varieties in Central Development Region

Mountain Hill Terai Varieties Area % area Varieties Area % area Varieties Area % area Makawanpur -1 2524 29.18 Makawanpur- 1 15456 24.81 Sona mansul i## 122241 48.82 Khumal -4 2513 29.05 Sabitri 13503 21.67 Sabitri 25029 10.00 khumal- 10 1365 15.78 Khumal- 4 11822 18.98 Hardinath- 1 22379 8.94 Chinung-242 390 4.51 Khumal -11 4249 6.82 Swarna sab- 1 18052 7.21 Khumal- 8 388 4.48 Chinung-242 2922 4.69 Rambilash## 13876 5.54 Khumal -11 313 3.62 Radha-4 1952 3.13 Radha 4 10626 4.24 Himali 218 2.52 Taichung-176 1744 2.80 Ram dhan 7536 3.01 Radha -6 175 2.02 Khumal-10 1736 2.79 Mansuli 6813 2.72 Radha -4 172 1.99 Ghaiya-2 1723 2.77 Sarju- 52## 4760 1.90 Mansuli 165 1.91 Hardinath-1 1671 2.68 Sabha sab- 1 3762 1.50 Mansuli 141 1.63 Radha -7 1035 1.66 Sambha mansuli sab1 2760 1.10 Ghaiya -2 69 0.80 Khumal-8 870 1.40 Sukkha-2 2511 1.00 Kanchan 66 0.76 Ram Dhan 592 0.95 Others 2083 0.83 Others 151 1.75 Loktantra 443 0.71 Sukkha-1 1873 0.75 Rambilah## 399 0.64 Mithila 1529 0.61 Chhomrong 273 0.44 Radha- 11 1041 0.42 Sunaulo sugandha 264 0.42 Sukkha-3 901 0.36 Ranpur mansuli 253 0.41 Makawanpur- 1 880 0.35 Himali 224 0.36 Sunaulo sugandha 759 0.30 Parwanipur-1 91 0.15 Ghaiya- 1 521 0.21 Mansuli 86 0.14 Kanchi mansuli## 338 0.13 Mallika 46 0.07 Loktantra 119 0.05 Sukkha-3 40 0.06 0.00 Sukkha-2 31 0.05 0.00 Swarna sab-1 23 0.04 0.00 Sukkha-1 20 0.03 0.00 Others 832 1.34 0.00 Total 8649 100.00 62298 100.00 250390 100.00 ## Indian/non-registered varieties

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6.1.3 Western Development Region (WDR) There is no rice cultivation in the mountains of WDR. In other ecological regions, it is reported that 27 registered and 4 non registered rice varieties are cultivated (Table 18). Among them, Sabitri (20.07%), Khumal-4 (16.41%) and Ram dhan (13.94%) are popular occupying nearly 50 percent of the rice area in the hills. In case of the Terai, Radha-4 (26.55%), Sawa mansuli (19.11%) and Sabitri (11.04%) occupy nearly 57 percent of the total area. Table 18. Area under Different Normal Improved Rice varieties in Western Development Region Mountain Hill Terai Varieties Area % area Varieties Area % area Varieties Area % area 0 0 0 Sabitri 17735 20.07 Radha- 4 31737 26.55 khumal -4 14495 16.41 Sawa mansuli## 22842 19.11 Ram dhan 12319 13.94 Sabitri 13203 11.04 Makawanpur- 1 7155 8.10 Sambha mansli sab- 1 12283 10.27 Khumal -10 3867 4.38 Ram Dhan 8762 7.33 Sudhariyako jethobudo 3593 4.07 Sarju- 52## 8665 7.25 Mansuli 3426 3.88 Mansuli 7920 6.63 Radha- 7 2692 3.05 Sona mansuli## 6230 5.21 Rampur mansuli 2691 3.05 Swarna sab-1 3085 2.58 Radha- 4 2467 2.79 Hardinath-1 1796 1.50 Sunaulo sugandha 2162 2.45 Radha- 12 450 0.38 Hardinath- 1 2045 2.31 Radha- 7 270 0.23 Loktantra 2030 2.30 Sukkha-1 40 0.03 Khumal- 8 1539 1.74 Sukhkha- 3 32 0.03 Machhapuchre-3 1033 1.17 Others 2230 1.87 Chhomrong 1019 1.15 Lumle -2 999 1.13 Khumal – 2 872 0.99 Radha- 11 772 0.87 Khumal-11 737 0.83 Radha- 12 543 0.61 Sukkha-3 369 0.42 Sukkha-1 350 0.40 Sawa mansuli ## 337 0.38 Malesiya## 149 0.17 Sukkha-2 49 0.06 Others 2904 3.29 Total 88349 100.00 119545 100.00 *Indian/non-registered varieties

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6.1.4 Mid-Western Development Region (MWDR) In the MDR, 30 registered and 2 non registered rice varieties are reported to be cultivated (Table 19). In the mid-western mountain, 7 varieties have been reported, out of which Chandannath-3(45.66%), Chandannath-1(20.34%) and Khumal- 10 (13.54%) are popular and share nearly 80 percent of the area under MVs. The varieties Bindeshowri (19.48%), Radha-4 (16.22%) and Khumal-4 are the top three varieties in the hills occupying 49 percent of the total area. Unlike Terai of other development regions, the varieties released from Nepal are popular in MWDR. Among them, Radha-4 is the most popular variety (39.07%) followed by Bindeshwori (15.40%) and Sabitri 14.19%). Table 19. Area under Normal Improved Rice Varieties in Mid-Western Development Region

Mountain Hill Terai Varieties Area %area Varieties Area %area Varieties Area %area Chandan nath -3 2216 45.66 Bindeswari 7624 19.48 Radha -4 38190 39.07 Chandan nath -1 987 20.34 Radha- 4 6351 16.22 Bindeswari 15053 15.40 Khummal -10 657 13.54 Khumal- 4 5283 13.50 Sabitri 13870 14.19 Chhomrong 487 10.03 Radha -7 4815 12.30 Makawanpur- 1 7500 7.67 Machhapuchhre- 3 228 4.70 Sabitri 2889 7.38 Sarju-52## 5451 5.58 Taichung -176 163 3.36 Himali 1562 3.99 Ram dhan 4042 4.14 Lumle -2 115 2.37 Ram dhan 1348 3.44 Janaki 2894 2.96 Khumal -11 1026 2.62 Mansuli 2617 2.68 Radha -12 905 2.31 Sukhkha- 3 1463 1.50 Loktantra 899 2.30 Sukhkha- 2 1392 1.42 Khumal- 8 862 2.20 Hardinath- 1 1314 1.34 Khumal -10 841 2.15 Sambha mansuli sab-1 1273 1.30 Mansuli 781 2.00 Sawa mansuli ## 1257 1.29 Makawanpur -1 564 1.44 Sukhkha-1 1209 1.24 Ghaiya- 2 535 1.37 Others 215 0.22 Sukkha-3 460 1.17 Sukkha-1 420 1.07 Sukkha-2 410 1.05 Khumal- 9 405 1.03 Mithila 281 0.72 Tarahara- 1 279 0.71 Hardinath- 1 196 0.50 Sawa mansuli## 63 0.16 Others 347 0.89 Total 4853 100.00 39147 100.00 97741 100.00 ## Indian/non-registered varieties

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6.1.5 Far-Western Development Region (FWDR) In the FWDR, 22 registered and 2 non registered rice varieties have been reported (Table 20). In the mountains, three varieties namely Radha-4 (32.34%), Khumal-4 (22.73%) and Hardinath-1(13.02%) share 68 percent of the total area. The Radha-4 (40.78%), Khumal-4 (26.13%) and Hardinath-1(16.42%) occupy 83 percent of the total area in the hills. On the other hand, Saryu-52, an Indian variety is popular in Terai occupying 46.79 percent of the total area followed by Radha-4 (21.14%) and Sabitri (11.73%). Table 20. Area under Normal Improved Rice Varieties in Far-Western Development Region. Mountain Hill Terai Varieties Area % area Varieties Area % area Varieties Area % area Radha- 4 3404 32.34 Radha- 4 10955 40.78 Sarju-52## 50722 46.79 Khumal -4 2393 22.73 Khumal- 4 7030 26.17 Radha- 4 22919 21.14 Hardinath- 1 1371 13.02 Hardinath-1 4411 16.42 Sabitri 12719 11.73 Chhomrong 1054 10.01 Khumal -11 1692 6.30 Hardinath- 1 10632 9.81 Himali 1045 9.93 Khumal -10 1207 4.49 Ram dhan 2759 2.54 Chandannath-1 623 5.92 Loktantra 792 2.95 Loktantra 2237 2.06 Chandannath-3 505 4.80 Sawa mansuli## 409 1.52 Sawa mansuli## 1714 1.58 Sukhkha- 1 122 1.16 Sukhkha- 3 279 1.04 Makawanpur- 1 1390 1.28 Khumal -11 5 0.05 Others 85 0.32 Mansuli 645 0.59 Khumal- 13 5 0.05 Mithila 534 0.49 Swarna sab- 1 534 0.49 Sukhkha- 1 434 0.40 Sukhkha- 3 434 0.40 Janak 402 0.37 Radhakrishna 334 0.31 Total 10527 100.00 26860 100.00 108409 100.00 ## Indian/non-registered varieties 6.2 Area under Old and New Improved Varieties The National Agricultural Research Council of Nepal is developing modern varieties of rice considering the needs of diverse ecosystems and production environments in Nepal. This has resulted in coverage of improved varieties in around 90 percent of the total rice area which were developed and released from 1966 to 2014. There are few varieties released during 70s and mid 80s which are still being widely adopted in Nepal. Table 21 shows that around 52 percent of the total rice areas are under old improved varieties. Indian, non-registered two varieties such as Sona Masuli (released in 1982) and Sarju52 (released in 1979) occupies around 23 percent of the area under old varieties. Moreover, farmers are still cultivating banned varieties although in a small area. The adoption of the varieties released over 40 years such as Masuli, and over 30 years such

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as Sabitri, Sarju-52 and Sona Masuli show that efforts to deploy new improved varieties are not sufficient, new improved varieties are incompetent with old varieties for specific traits. Besides, for some old varieties farmers have special preferences for their traits such as wider adaptability, low fertility tolerance etc. The share of the specified new MVs in total area is around 48.91 percent. Table 21: Area under Old and New Improved of Normal Rice Varieties S.N Area under old improved varieties (%) S.N Area under new improved varieties (%) Varieties Area (ha) % Varieties Area (ha) % 1 Sona mansuli ## 192340 16.69 1 Radha- 4 129720 11.26 2 Sabitri 105879 9.19 2 Hardinath -1 58777 5.10 3 Sarju- 52## 69598 6.04 3 Radha -12 48378 4.20 4 Mansuli 59176 5.14 4 Swarna sab -1 37853 3.28 5 Khumal -4 55619 4.83 5 Ram Dhan 37358 3.24 6 Makawanpur -1 40058 3.48 6 Ranjit ## 31081 2.70 7 Sawa mansuli## 27656 2.40 7 Lalka basmati 16849 1.46 8 Bindeswari 22677 1.97 8 Sambha mansuli sab-1 16316 1.42 9 Chinung -242 3312 0.29 9 Khumal- 10 12429 1.08 10 Janaki 3296 0.29 10 Radha- 7 9164 0.80 11 Himali 3049 0.26 11 Tarahara-1 8436 0.73 12 Ghaiya- 2 2450 0.21 12 Loktantra 7846 0.68 13 Taichung- 176 2187 0.19 13 Khumal-11 7785 0.68 14 Khumal- 2 1316 0.11 14 Rampur mansuli 7603 0.66 15 Parwanipur-1 91 0.01 15 Khumal- 8 6680 0.58 0.00 16 Sukhkha- 2 5190 0.45 0.00 17 Sukkha-3 5097 0.44 0.00 18 Sukkha-1 4619 0.40 0.00 19 Chhomrong 4357 0.38 0.00 20 Mithila 3822 0.33 0.00 21 Sudhariyako jethobudo 3593 0.31 0.00 22 Sunaulo sugandha 3185 0.28 0.00 23 Chandan nath -3 2721 0.24 0.00 24 Barse- 3004 1938 0.17 0.00 25 Radha- 11 1813 0.16 0.00 26 Chandan nath -1 1611 0.14 0.00 27 Machhapuchre- 3 1261 0.11 0.00 28 Barse- 2014 1097 0.10 0.00 29 Ghaiya- 1 521 0.05 0.00 30 Khumal- 9 405 0.04 0.00 31 Radhakrishna 334 0.03 0.00 32 Khumal- 13 5 0.00 Total 588705 51.09 477844 41.47 Others 85765 7.44 Grand total 1152313.77 100.00 # Indian non-registered rice varieties **denotified varieties

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6.3 Varietal Area Share in Spring (Chaite) Season The coverage of MVs for spring or Chaite rice is the highest in the Terai (76.0%) followed by the hills (18.18%) and the mountains (5.82%). The area share of the different MVs cultivated during the Chaite season is presented in Table 22. It shows that 13 specific named varieties were reported to be cultivated, among them, the Hardinath-1 occupies around 56.05 percent of the total area followed by Chaite-2 (14.55%) and Chaite-4 (6.33%). Few non-registered varieties are also reported. Table 22. Area Share of Major Varieties during Spring (Chaite) Season

S.N Varieties Area Area share (%) 1 Hardinath-1 62957 56.05 2 Chaite-2 16345 14.55 3 Chaite-4 7110 6.33 4 CH-45 6153 5.48 5 Kanchan 2786 2.48 6 Radha -11 1084 0.97 7 Kanchhi mansuli ## 1058 0.94 8 Chaite-6 790 0.70 9 PR-101 ## 731 0.65 10 Khumal -11 382 0.34 11 Chaite-1, 288 0.26 12 Sabitri 217 0.19 13 Hardinath- 2 208 0.19 14 Others/local 12204 10.87 Total: 112313 100.00 ##Indian/non-registered variety 6.4 Area Share of Hybrids The share of hybrid varieties in the total cultivated area of rice is 7.4 percent in Nepal. Table 23 shows that the western Terai has the highest share of area (55.04%) followed by mid-western Terai (18.10%) and the central hills (8.09%). As a whole, Terai accounts for 83.00 % followed by hills (16.79%) and mountains (0.22%). The hybrid varieties are cultivated in 39 districts of which 3 are mountain districts, 19 hill districts and 17 Terai districts.

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Table 23. Area under Hybrid Varieties (%)

Ecology Region (overall) Development Region Mountain Hill Terai Area % Area % Area % Area % EDR 0 0.00 296 0.26 2891.00 2.54 3187 2.80 CDR 149 0.13 9209 8.09 7138.87 6.27 16497 14.48 WDR 0 0.00 6520 5.73 62690.00 55.04 69210 60.77 MWDR 0 0.00 3096 2.72 20618.08 18.10 23714 20.82 FWDR 102 0.09 0 0.00 1180.00 1.04 1282 1.13 Total 251 0.22 19121 16.79 94525.94 83.00 113890 100.00 Note: Calculation is based on annex 4. 6.5 Area Share of Fine and Aromatic Rice A total of 48 fine and aromatic rice varieties are found to be grown in Nepal. They include both improved as well as local land races. The area under fine and aromatic rice varieties is 258855 ha, which constitutes 16.90 percent of total area under rice cultivation in Nepal (Table 24). Of the 258855 ha, under fine and aromatic rice, the mountains, hills and Terai share 5.92%, 44.20% and 49.88% respectively. Similarly, area under fine and aromatic rice in eastern, central, western, mid-western and farwestern development regions are 40.39%, 18.35%, 28.37%, 6.38% and 6.51%, respectively. The calculation is based on the quality attributes of the improved and local varieties as identified and reported by the respective DADOs and in discussions with the concerned technicians. Table 24. Area and Percentage Share of Fine and Aromatic Rice (%) Ecological Regions Mountain Hill Terai Region Total Development Region Area (ha) % Area (ha) % Area (ha) % Area (ha) % EDR 4141 1.60 24867 9.61 75533 29.18 104541 40.39 CDR 7913 3.06 18644 7.20 20946 8.09 47503.3 18.35 WDR 0 0.00 51215 19.79 22225 8.59 73440 28.37 MWDR 755 0.29 9395 3.63 6360 2.46 16510.5 6.38 FWDR 2504 0.97 10298 3.98 4058 1.57 16859.7 6.51 Total 15313 5.92 114420 44.20 129122 49.88 258855 100.00 Out of total area under rice, 16.90% is occupied by fine and arometic rice in Nepal.

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6.6 Area Share by Local Varieties or Landraces Landraces have evolved under continuous natural and selection practices in farmers’ fields, and are the progenitors of modern crop varieties used by farmers around the world (Harlan, 1972). They are an important source of novel alleles for crop improvement. In poorer countries and in areas that are environmentally heterogeneous and isolated from markets, many farmers still rely directly on the genetic diversity they sow for food and fodder as well as the next season’s seed. More heterogeneous than the modern semi-dwarf varieties, LANDRACESs are often adapted to specific local human needs and environmental niches (Simmonds, 1979). The concern is that the replacement of LANDRACESs by MVs implies a loss of (potentially valuable) genetic variation. For this reason, their conservation in gene banks (ex-situ) has been practiced. At the same time, interest in in-situ conservation through on-farm management in farmers’ fields has also gained considerable attention. Landraces names are based on phenotype, not genotype. As a result, the nomenclature is imperfect, different names can be given to genetically closely related populations, while the same name can be given to genetically very distinct ones. However, farmers have recognized, controlled and acted upon these descriptors for many years. There has been a decline in the number of LANDRACESs under cultivation in Nepal. Changes in the production environment, the farmers’ preference for consumption and market integration have acted to increase the area sown for MVs at the expense of both area and diversity of LANDRACESs. However, the cultivation of the landraces is shaped in part by the production environment, and by the cultural and religious significance (Joshi and Bauer, 2006). The average area share of landraces is slightly over 10 percent in Nepal. By season, this accounts 10.3 percent during barkhe and 8.8 percent during Chaite season. The popular varieties grown are Belguthi, Ate, Dudhe Marshi, Mansara, Sepilo, and Kalkuda in the eastern mountains and Belguthi, Ate and Chirakhe in the eastern hills. On the other hand, Basmati, Chanamchur, Sathiya, Chirakhe, Kariyakamod, Jaswa, Belguti and Kalo Nuniya are the LANDRACESs cultivated in the eastern Terai. The top five varieties in terms of area coverage are Pokhreli Masino, Anadi, Marshi, Anpjhutte, and Ghiya (kalo/Rato/Seto), in the central mountains. Pokhreli Masino, Basmati, Manbhog, Mansara, and Bhotagi are the dominant LANDRACESs in the central hills while Basmati, Kariyakamod and Kalanamak are cultivated in the central Terai. In case of western hills, the LANDRACES diversity is quite high (in terms of numbers). The LANDRACESs cultivated are Jethobudho, Jarneli, Jhinuwa, Ekle, Gudura, Panhlele Dhan, Anadi, Gauriya, Gurdi, Anpjhutte, Mansara etc. while Kalanamak, Makarkaddu, Latera, Pidani, and Saratha are cultivated in the western Terai.

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The varieties popular in the mid-western mountains are: Palte dhan, Bhattalo, Basmati, Jumli Marshi/Kali Marshi, Junge, Chinamari and Ghaiya. The LANDRACESs cultivated in the mid-western hills are: Jugari, Dada Mansuli, Basmati, Marshi, Jodan (kalo/Seto/Pahelo), Pokhreli Masino, Paran Pyuli and Pyuthani Seto etc. while Shyamjira, Gauriya, Sindur, Anadi, Kalanamak, Kanakjira, Tilki, Makarkaddu and Sugabodh are popular in the mid-western Terai. In term of LANDRACESs diversity, it is quite high in the far-western hills (22varieties). The popular cultivated LANDRACESs in the far-western hills are: Thapachini, Jorayal Basmati Shyamjira, Marshi, Jaulo, Ratodhan and Dudhe. On the other hand, Anjana, Tilki, Jhinwa, Anadi and Raimanuwa are the major LANDRACESs cultivated in the far-western Terai. However, other several landraces being grown by farmers in remote and in small portions of land are not covered by this study. 6.7 Dominant Improved Rice Varieties in Various Agro-Ecological Zone and Development Regions. Region wise distribution of varieties has shown that Khumal 4 is the most dominant variety in the Mountains (25.04%) and Hills (19.78%), and Sona Masuli (23.03%) in the Terai regions of Eastern Development Region. Likewise, Makwanpur-1 ranks first in the Mountain (29.18%) and Hills (24.81%) of the Central Development Region. In the Terai region Sona Mansuli (48.82%) is the most popular variety. In the Hills of Western Development Region, Sabitri is the first (20.07%) and in the Terai Radha-4 is dominant (26.55%) variety. Two mountain districts namely Manag and Mustang of the WDR do not produce rice. In case of Midwestern Development Region, Chandannath-3 (45.66%), Bindeswari (19.48%) and Radha-4 (39.07%) are the most accepted varieties in the Mountain, Hill and Terai, respectively. The variety, Radha-4 is widely grown in Mountain (32.34%) and hills (40.78%) of the Far-western Development Region. However, in the Terai regions of the FWDR Sarju-52 is grown in the largest areas (46.79%). The overall scenario of dominant rice varieties in EDR, CDR, WDR, MWDR and FWDR are found to be: Sona Mansuli (19.03%), Sona Mansuli (38.04%), Radha-4 (16.45%), Radha- 4 (31.42%) and Sarju-52 (34.79%), respectively (Table 25).

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Table 25. Dominant Improved Rice Variety and Its Percentage in Different Agroecological Zone and Development Region. Agro‐ecological zones Mountain Hill Terai Region (Over all) S.N Dev. Region Varietiy Area (ha) (%) Varietiy Area (ha) (%) Varietiy Area (ha) (%) Varietiy Area (ha) (%) 1 EDR Khumal‐4 2753 (25.04) Khumal ‐4 9329 (19.78) Sona mansuli ## 63868 (23.03) Sona mansuli ## 63868 (19.03)

2 CDR Makawanpur ‐1

2524 (29.18)

Makawanpur ‐1

15456 (24.81)

Sona mansuli ##

122241 (48.82)

Sona mansuli ##

122241 (38.04)

3 WDR Sabitri

17735 (20.07)

Radha‐4

31737 (26.55)

Radha ‐4

34204 (16.45)

4 MWDR Chandan nath ‐3

2216 (45.66)

Bindeswari

7624 (19.48)

Radha‐4

38190 (39.07)

Radha‐4

44541 (31.42)

5 FWDR Radha‐4

3404 (32.34)

Radha‐4

10955 (40.78)

Sarju‐52##

50722 (46.79)

Sarju‐52##

50722 (34.79)

Note: ## non registered / Indian varieties 6.8 Ranking of Dominant Rice Varieties at the National Level Table 26 summarizes the list of fifteen most popular and widely adopted rice varieties in Nepal. Among these 15 top varieties, their adoption differs from east to west of Nepal. Since deployment and adoption of hybrids are new in Nepal, all top varieties are of open pollinated type. Among these varieties, 10 are released through national system and remaining 5 (marked by double asterisks) entered into the country from the nearby cities of India. The modern 15 rice varieties occupied about 67.47 percent of the total rice cultivated area. The coverage from 5 non registered varieties (Sona Mansuli, Sarju52, Kanchhi Mansuli, Ranjit and Sawa mansuli) are found to be 23.78 percentage. Table 26: List of the Fifteen Widely Adopted (Improved, Hybrid and Local) Rice Varieties in Nepal. S.N Variety Area (ha) % share 1 Sona mansuli** 192340 12.56 2 Hardinath- 1 129313 8.44 3 Radha -4 121294 7.92 4 Sabitri 106096 6.93 5 Sarju- 52** 69598 4.54 6 Mansuli 59176 3.86 7 Khumal- 4 55619 3.63 8 Radha- 12 47928 3.13 9 Kanchhi mansuli** 43481 2.84 10 Makawanpur- 1 40058 2.62 11 Swarna sab- 1 37853 2.47 12 Ram dhan 37358 2.44

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S.N Variety Area (ha) % share 13 Gorakhnath- 509 34442 2.25 14 Ranjit** 31081 2.03 15 Sawa mansuli** 27656 1.81 Total 103329 67.47 Others 498202 32.53 Grand total 1531494 100.00 Note: ** non registered/Indian varieties 6.9 Trans-domain Varietal Movement Crop varieties are released and recommended for the particular geographical domain by the National Seed Board (NSB). However, seeds of different varieties are also grown in the non- recommended areas through informal channel and are being scaled up from farmers to farmers extensions. Due to huge demand of seeds for non-recommended sites, suppliers supply seeds informally to those areas for cultivation. In most of the cases, the performance of the variety is found to be better. There are many examples of varieties grown in non-recommended areas. Such as Makwanpur-1 is recommended for the Terai region but this is popularly grown in hills and mountains of central development region. Likewise, Sabitri variety is recommended for Terai and Inner Terai but this is also widely grown in western hills. The variety Radha-4 is recommended for mid-western and far-western Terai but is dominantly grown in western Terai and hills of far-western region.

7. SEED SYSTEM, COSTS AND RETURNS OF RICE 7.1 Rice Seed System The important component of seed value chain includes varietal development, release or registration, seed multiplication, processing, packaging, distribution and maintenance of different varieties of crops. The maintenance and deployment of location specific high yielding competitive varieties are also prerequisite for bringing agricultural growth and income. The cycle of rice seed production starts from breeder seed, which is developed and maintained by scientists in the research station. This seed is used for production of foundation seed, which is used again for production of certified seed. Certified seed is used for improved truthful label seed production. 7.2. Rice Seed Production and Requirements Until now, production and use of the breeder seed is mainly handled by NARC. In the recent years, private seed companies and farmers’ cooperatives have obtained authority from SQCC to produce foundation seeds of rice. The NSB and SQCC organize

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workshops to prepare foundation seed balance sheet. The aim of preparing seed balance sheet is to maintain the equilibrium between demand and supply of breeder and foundation seeds. This balance sheet specifies the name of quantity of foundation seeds to be produced by NARC and authorize Foundation Seed (FS) producers and the buyers accordingly. As indicated in the balance sheet, The NSB directs the producers and buyers of foundation seeds to compulsorily follow the sheet on priority basis. Breeder Seed: Breeder Seed Production of rice is the responsibility of rice breeders of the NARC and breeders working in other agencies who develop breeder seed varieties. Currently, the NRRP Hardinath, Agri-botany Division Khumaltar, Regional Agriculture Research Station Tarahara and Hill Crop Research Program Kabhre are authorized to produce BS of rice. Similarly, NGOs such as LI-BIRD and FORWARD are also producing breeder seeds of those varieties which were developed by them in coordination with NARC. Present trend of demand and production of Breeder Seed (BS) has shown that the production has surpassed the demand. This may be due to the mismatch between farmers preference of variety i.e. farmers demand and variety of BS supplied by NARC. However, interaction with concerned stakeholders including private sector seed producers yielded an impression that the bottleneck in the production of foundation seed is the short supply of breeder seed (PACT, 2012). The demand of BS shown in the table is based on balance sheet prepared by SQCC. The demand of BS from other government projects has not been included here. Most of the projects directly negotiated with NARC for BS required and supplied it to their command districts. Therefore the quantity of BS of rice produced seems higher (Table 27). Table 27. Demand and Supply of Breeder Seed of Rice in Nepal (kg) Year Demand Production Balance 2009/10 8010 8655 645 2010/11 7250 15460 8210 2011/12 9410 20568 11158 2012/13 7400 29990 22590 2013/14** 5755 24470 18715 Source: PACT, 2012; ** SQCC, 2013 Foundation Seed: Foundation seed is still mainly produced by NARC. The NSB has also permitted private sector organizations to produce foundation seeds. FS is then used to produce certified/improved seeds by the National Seed Company, Community Based Organizations, NGOs and many private companies. In 2013/14, NARC and other authorized agencies produced 438 MT FS of rice against the demand of 268 MT with surplus of 170 MT (Table 28).

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Table 28. Demand and Supply of Foundation Seed of Rice in Nepal (mt) Year Demand Production Balance 2009/10 296 253 -43 2010/11 171 270 99 2011/12 318 348 30 2012/13 231 364 133 2013/14** 268 438 170 Source: PACT, 2012. ** SQCC, 2013 Improved or commercial Seed: Improved seeds are mainly produced by private seed companies, farmers’ cooperatives and groups. However, the farms under DoA and NARC are still active in producing commercial seeds of rice. Due to growing number of private institutions and farmers’ groups and cooperatives, government is gradually tightening mandate to produce certified seeds. Unlike in the case of the breeder and foundation seeds, there is a huge gap between the production and requirement of the certified seeds (Table 29). Although the seed replacement rate of rice is gradually increasing over the years, the rate is quite low as evidenced by the rate of mere, 13.4% in 2012/13. Hence, still the informal supply system (including farmers’ saving from the own harvest and farmers to farmers exchange of seed) is important in Nepal. Table 29. Production and Requirement (mt) of Improved Seeds and Seed Replacement Rate (SRR).

Year Production Requirement SRR (%) 2007/08 4519 77463 5.83 2008/09 5071 77797 6.51 2009/10 6788 77064 9.10 2010/11 7209 77823 9.60 2011/12 8027 76574 10.50 2012/13 9537.3 71029 13.4 7.3 Costs and Returns of Rice Seed Production The unit price of seed is higher than normal grain as it requires more inputs and greater care in its production. It is estimated that rice seed production required about 30% additional costs in comparison with the grain production. The average rice grain price was Rs 20 per kg while price of certified seed was Rs 42 per kg in 2011/12. Among the cost factors, cost incurred with the labor accounts for more than 73 percent of total cost in rice seed production (Table 30). A study conducted by PACT in 2012 showed that there is a high profit margin in the rice seed in comparison with the grain production.

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Table 28 summarizes the cost factors and associated cost in rice seed production. It shows that to produce a kilogram of rice seed one has to invest NRs 9.71. However, due to sharp increases in the price of production inputs including of labor and certification charges, there is a need to further update and validates this analysis. Table 30. The Share of Different Items on Total Cost of Rice Seed Production. Cost Items Cost per kg % share Seed 0.56 5.76 Labor 7.11 73.15 Fertilizer 1.32 13.58 Pesticide 0.06 0.62 Others 0.67 6.89 Total 9.71 100 Source: PACT, 2012. Pricing of breeder and foundation seed produced by NARC is done by a committee of officials from NARC, MOAD and private sector entrepreneurs. Cost of production of the specific crop and variety, involvement of technical manpower and physical facilities are considered while determining the prices. Prices of foundation seed are higher than certified seed and prices of breeder seed are higher than prices of foundation seed. The private sector seed producers have their own pricing system, which is normally guided by ongoing market prices of food grains. The average per kg price of Breeder seed was Rs 70 and Foundation seed was Rs 42 in the year 2011/12. Cooperatives and seed companies normally provide 20% premiums for certified/improved seed over on-going market prices of food grain of the same crop and variety while buying from their members and contract farmers with some variations specific to location and prior agreement.

8 RICE STRAW PRODUCTION: Animal husbandry is the second most important occupation after crop production in Nepal. Rice straw is the major forage or residue which is used for animal feeding in small farms. Farmers' preference to grow tall varieties with high straw yield is to provide feed to livestock. Rice straw meets about 32-37% of total digestible nutrients required for several million livestock units, especially during scarcity of green fodder. It is also used as bedding materials for livestock in winter, thatching for house and raw materials for compost making and paper industries. Furthermore rice straw is used in mushroom industries. With steady increase in straw consuming industries, price of straw is also on the rising trend. According to APMDD (2013/14), average yield of straw in Nepal is 3.9 ton/ha. With this yield, a total of 5,972,823 MT of straw was produced from 1,531,493 ha rice fields amounting NRs 7,167,387, 240 at the rate of NRs 1.2 per kg.

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9. MECHANIZATION IN RICE PRODUCTION: Labor shortages in agriculture sector due to increasing migration of rural youths specially males to urban and golf countries has been a major challenge. Its impact is directly observed in rice production system. Until few years back, farmers were using bullocks to plough their land and depended on manual labor for harvesting, haulage, threshing and processing of paddy. Due to increasing labor shortages and availability of machineries and equipments for rice farming, use of these machineries are on increasing trend especially in the Terai regions. Two-wheel and four-wheel tractors, power tiller, trolleys, rice transplanters, weeder, thresher etc. are being increasingly employed. Use of combined harvester for harvesting, threshing and winnowing at a time are also being popular in Terai of Nepal. As a result, the trend of importing: tractor, power tiller, combined harvester, transplantor, reaper etc. is growing in Nepal. 10. CONSTRAINTS IN RICE PRODUCTION: The slow growth of rice yield is attributed to several factors including inadequate supply of quality seeds and fertilizers, imbalanced use of plant nutrition, slow expansion and limited utilization of irrigation, inadequate appropriate technologies for rain-fed areas and inefficient marketing and pricing system. Rice production is constrained by frequent natural disasters including flood, drought, landslides and erratic rainfall combined with the decreasing soil fertility and other biotic stresses such as diseases and pests. It is also observed that areas of irrigated rice fields are being shrunk due to expansion of industries and settlements (urbanization) both in Terai and hills. Likewise, size of landholdings is becoming smaller due to land fragmentation. Labor migration to urban and golf countries have serious negative impacts on rice production. Farmers are facing sharp increase in the price of production inputs such as: labor, fertilizers, irrigation, fuels etc. As a result of these, the cost of production of Nepalese rice is significantly higher than the rice produced in the neighboring countries making rice production a non-competitive enterprise for Nepalese farmers. Most of the rice fields in recent years are left un-weeded because of labor shortage and higher wage rate. Zinc deficiency has been increasingly common, adversely affecting rice yields. 11. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

11.1 Conclusion  Rice is the most important cereal crop in terms of contribution to economy, food security and livelihood of Nepalese people. It has also cultural, religious and traditional significance in Nepalese society. Rice is cultivated under different production environments and ecological regions of Nepal. During the last four decades, the rice area and yield grew annually by only 0.59 and 1.75 percent,

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

respectively. The growth in yield contributed by production increment and expansion of area are, 72 and 28 percent respectively.

 Considering the global concern for food security and poverty reduction and the importance of rice to this light, International Year of Rice was observed in 2004 with the theme “Rice is Life”. Realizing its importance, the Government of Nepal on 14th December 2004 decided to celebrate Asar 15 (June 29) of each year as “National Rice Day”. Since 2004, Nepal is celebrating this Day every year.  Many structural changes have taken place in rice research (including institutional development) in Nepal during the last six decades. The Rice Research Program has been instituted for coordinating rice research in the country. Formal rice research in Nepal started in 1951 with the collection of 930 rice germplasm from across 54 districts and their evaluation at Parwanipur and Khumaltar. Since then, Nepal has developed and released 73 varieties by 2014.  The food security concern in Nepal started since the Sixth Plan in order to fulfill the basic needs of the people. Since then, the policies have emphasized in increasing agricultural production, income generating programs, and providing food subsidy in remote areas.  The yield of rice is the lowest in Nepal among the South Asian countries. Comparing Nepal’s Terai with the Indian states, the yield level of Nepal is far below than Punjab, an advanced state in terms of agricultural development. However, its yield level is higher than the lagging state like Bihar.  The number of varieties developed by the research system of Nepal is very small considering the diverse agro-ecosystem of the country. There is a yield gap of 54 percent between the potential yield and the actual yield at the farm level.  The growth of research investment on rice crop was erratic and inconsistent throughout the last decade. The overall research cost in rice commodity had declined in real term over the years.  The total rice area reported by the districts for the present study is at the higher side compared to the area estimated by MOAD which has been adjusted with the area for the year 2011/12. Out of the total rice area, 70 percent is in Terai, 26 percent in the hills and 4 percent in the mountains. About 92.1 % (1410928 ha) of rice area falls under main (Barkhe) season, 7.3% (112313 ha) Chaite and 0.6% (8253 ha) Bhadaiya and Boro rice.

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 The MVs occupy nearly 90 percent of the total rice area. In Nepal, a total of 55 MVs have been reported to be cultivated, out of which 46 are developed in Nepal and rest are of Indian origin.

 The old MVs (released before 1990) occupy around 52 percent of the total rice area in the main season. The Indian varieties are dominant in some Terai districts. The share of hybrid varieties in the total cultivated area of rice is 7.4 percent while the share of fine and aromatic rice is about 16.9 percent.  This report summarizes that there are limited numbers of varietal options for hill and mountains. The variety, khumal-4 is the farmers' only choice in this region and none of the other hill varieties are found to be competitive with this variety. So the numbers of released hill rice varieties are not competent enough to fully cope up with the potentiality of the hill rice environments. 11.2 Recommendations 1. Rice is a major contributor of Agricultural Gross Domestic Product and has tremendous potential to improve the national economy, food security, and general welfare of people in Nepal. This study recommends formulating and implementing a separate rice policy to attract producers, processors and traders by increasing investment and supports both from the public and private sectors. Emphasis should be given on the promotion of double rice production system, integrated mobilization of multiple stakeholders (internal and external), and the use of farm machineries. 2. The most viable option to increase annual rice production is to increase the area under spring rice. Therefore, spring rice production should be promoted in irrigated areas. 3. Proposed policy should aim at making Nepalese rice production, processing and trading enterprise competitive with those of the neighboring countries. The policy should include introduction of output based incentive systems in rice production, provision of soft loans to value chain actors, crop insurance schemes, and improved rice pricing systems. 4. In Nepal, consumers' preference is leaning towards fine and aromatic rice. The considerable growth of middle class people and decrease of poverty increases the demand of such rice. To fulfill this demand, Nepal needs significant increase in domestic production and supply of fine and aromatic rice. There should have been sufficient number of fine and aromatic rice varieties, which fit into existing cropping patterns for normal and spring seasons of different agro-ecological zones.

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

5. Investment in agricultural research remains about one-third of the lower bound of accepted international norms. As a result, the generation of competitive/appropriate technologies is lagging behind. In the future, the government should focus its investment priority in these areas. The increased investment in rice research should be targeted in developing and disseminating competitive varieties and suitable crop management technologies including mechanization. 6. Government of Nepal should prioritize the implementation of the National Seed Vision (2013-2025), which foresees to double the number of location specific high yielding competitive varieties by 2025 and realizes the seed replacement rate of 25 percent for cereals at the national level. To meet the growing domestic demand and substitute the import of hybrid seeds, the NSV envisages the development and promotion of 13 hybrid rice varieties (8 by the government and 5 by the private sector) by 2025. 7. The varietal mapping report indicated that rice varieties are moving from recommended domain to new domains due to farmers' preference and better performance over the existing ones. So, the National Seed Board should revise the recommended domain to legalize seed production, dissemination and quality control mechanism. 8. Nepal is facing climate induced risks such as floods, drought, hailstone, heat and cold waves disaster every year or alternate year. As a result, the crop failure in one year reduces the required amount of quality seeds for the following year. For immediate supply of seeds during adverse conditions, seeds of major cereals, including rice, should be kept in buffer stock. In the context of Nepal, seed buffer stock should be maintained in each region. 9. There are very good rice pockets in the hills and mountains. To fulfill the varietal needs of these regions, NARC should develop competitive, high yielding, and farmers' preferred rice varieties suitable for hills and mountains.

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REFERENCES ABPMDD. 2014. Cost of production and marketing margin of cereal, cash, vegetable spices in Nepal (2013/014). Agribusiness Promotion and Marketing Development Directorate, Department of Agriculture, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal. ANZDEC. 2002. Nepal Agricultural Sector Performance Review (Draft Final Report).ANZDEC Limited, New Zealand in association with CMS, Limited, Kathmandu, Nepal. Bhandari, D. R. 1997. Bali BigyanPrabidhiKosh (Nepali). Crop Development Division, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal. Bhandari, D.R. 2002. Crop Development Program and Achievement in the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-/98-2001/02). Crop Development Directorate, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal. Bhandari,D.R.2058.Review of Crop Development Activities under Pocket Package Program. Crop Development Directorate, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal. Bhandari, D.R. and Devkota B.P. 1998. Croping System Inventory. Crop Development Division, Department of Agriculture, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal. Bhattarai, A.N. 1969. A review of rice improvement in Kathmandu valley. Nepalese Journal of Agriculture,4, 47-57. Bhujel, R.B.,MahatP.M. and Rana, C.B. 2011. JumlamaDhanKheti (Nepali). Agricultural Research Station. Bijayanagar, Jumla. CAZS. 2005. The Evolution and Spread of Socially Responsible Technical and Institutional Changes in a Rice Innovation System in Nepal (Discussion Paper8). CAZS Natural Resources, University of Wales and LI-BIRD Gumma, M. K., D.Gauchan, A. Nelson, S. Pandey and A.Rala. 2011. Temporal changes in rice-growing area and their impact on livelihood over a decade: A case study of Nepal. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 142 (3–4), 382–392. Gupta, S.R., Upadhyay, M.P. and Katsumoto, T. 1996. Status of Plant Genetic Resources inNepal. Paper presented at the 19th Summer Crops Workshop held at National RiceResearch Programme, Parwanipur, Bara, Nepal. Harlan, J.R. 1972. Genetics of disaster. Journal of Environmental Quality,1, 212–215. Harris, David R. 1996. The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. Psychology Press. p. 565. Joshi, G.R. and Bauer, S. 2006. Cultivation and the loss of rice landraces in the Terai region of Nepal. Plant Genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilization, 5(1), 1-7.

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Khatiwada,S.P. and Upreti, H.K. 2008.Highlights on rice varieties of various environments of Nepal. Paper presented at the Third SAS-N Convention, 2729, August 2008, Kathmandu, Nepal Mallick, R.N. 1981. Rice in Nepal.KalaPrakasan.Kathmandu, Nepal. MoAD. 2012. Guideline of Price Subsidy on Improved Seed to Farmers, 2012. Ministry of Agricultural Development, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. MoAD. 2012. Statistical Information on Nepalese Agriculture, 2011/12. Ministry of Agricultural Development, Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. MoAD. 2013.Statistical Information on Nepalese Agriculture, 2012/13.Ministry of Agricultural Development, Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Molina, J., Sikora, M., Garud, N., Flowers, J. M., Rubinstein, S., Reynolds, A., Huang, P., Jackson, S.,Schaal, B. A., Bustamante, C. D.,Boyko, A. R., Purugganan, M. D. 2011. Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108 (20), 8351. NARC, 1991. Annual Report. Central Plant Breeding and Biotechnology Division, Nepal Agricultural research Council, Khumaltar, Nepal. NARC. 2003.Nepal Agricultural Research Council.NARC Newsletter,10(3). CBS. 2011. Nepal Living Standards Survey 2010/11. Central Bureau of Statistics,National Planning Commission Secretariat, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. NRRP. 2009. Annual report. Nepal Agriculture Research Council, National Rice Research Program (NRRP),Hardinath, Dhanusha,Nepal. PACT. 2012.Value Chain Development Plan for Cereal Seed. Project on Agricultural Commercialization and Trade, Ministry of Agricultural Development, Kathmandu, Nepal. Pandey,S., Gauchan, D., Malabayabas, M., and Bool-Emerick,M. and Hardy, B. 2012. Patterns of adoption of improved rice varieties and farm-level impacts in stress-prone rainfed areas in South Asia. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. Pokhrel, T. P. 1997. Rice Development Programme in Nepal. International Rice Commission, News Letter, 46. Shrestha,H.K., Manandhar, H.K. and Regmi, P.P. 2012.Variety Development Cost versus Variety Adoption in Major Cereals in Nepal. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology, 13(1), 7-15. Simmonds, N. 1979. Principles of Crop Improvement. Harlow: Longman.

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SQCC. 2013.Demand and Supply of Seeds in Nepal. In Proceeding of the Interaction Workshops 2069/70. Seed Quality Control Center, Ministry of Agricultural Development. Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal. SQCC. 2013. National Seed Vision, 2013-25. Ministry of Agricultural Development, Seed Quality Control Centre, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur,Nepal. Thapa, G.B. and Rosegrant, M.W. 1995. Projection and Policy Implications of Food supply and Demand in Nepal to year 2020. WinrockInternational,Kathmandu, Nepal. Thapa, Y. B. 2008. Inclusion of Food Security Policy in the National Plans of Nepal. Memo www.renaissance.org.np Thapa, Y. B. and Pokhrel, A. 2003. Factors Affecting Adoption of Improved Agricultural Practices in Nepal. A memo submitted to Asian Development Bank in 2003 under project TA 3451 NP. Vaughan, D.A., Lu, B. andTomooka, N. 2008. The evolving story of rice evolution. Plant Science,174 (4), 394–408.

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ANNEXES Annex 1: Characteristics of the Modern Varieties of Rice Released by National Seed Board S.No Variety Year of Release Origin Days of Maturity Yield (Mt/ha) Recommended domains Spring Season 1. CH-45 1966 China 118 3.5 Terai, inner Terai 2. Parwanipur-1** 1973 IRRI 135 4.0 Terai, inner Terai 3. IR-24** 1975 IRRI 135 3.8 Terai, inner Terai 4 Chandina** 1977 B’desh 128 3.8 Terai, inner Terai 5. Laxmi** 1979 IRRI 135 4.5 Terai, inner Terai 6. Bindeswori 1981 India 128 4.0 Terai, inner Terai 7. Mallika** 1982 B’desh 128 4.0 Terai, inner Terai 8. Chaite-2 1987 IRRI 125 4.8 Terai, inner Terai 9. Chaite-4 1987 IRRI 118 4.5 Terai, inner Terai 10. Chaite-6 1991 Nepal 123 4.8 Terai, inner Terai 11 Hardinath 1 2004 Srilanka 110 5.0 Terai, Inner Terai Main Season 1. Taichung-176 1966 Taiwan 144 7.9 Mid-hills and valley 2. Chainung-242 1966 Taiwan 144 7.3 Mid-hills and valley 3. Tainan-1 1966 Taiwan 144 6.6 Mid-hills 4. Chainan-2 1966 Taiwan 143 7.8 Mid-hills 5. IR-8** 1968 IRRI 138 4.0 Terai 6. IR-20** 1970 IRRI 153 4.0 Terai 7. IR-22** 1972 IRRI 146 3.5 Terai 8. Mansuli 1973 Malaysia 155 3.5 Terai, inner Terai 9. Jaya** 1973 India 130 4.3 Terai 10. Durga** 1979 India 130 4.3 Terai,innerTerai 11. Janaki 1979 Srilanka 135 4.5 Terai inner Terai 12. Sabitri 1979 IRRI 140 4.0 Terai, inner Terai 13. Himali 1982 IRRI 149 6.4 Mid-hills 14. Kanchan 1982 IRRI 143 7.6 Mid-hills 15. Khumal-3 1983 India 130 6.5 Mid-hills 16. Khumal-2 1987 Nepal 142 5.6 Mid-hills 17. Khumal-4 1987 Nepal 144 6.3 Mid-hills 18. Makwanpur-1 1987 Srilanka 150 4.8 Terai, inner Terai 19. Barkhe-2** 1987 Indonesia 148 4.3 Terai, inner Terai 20. Khajura-2** 1987 India 140 3.8 MidwestnTerai(Banke) 21. Ghaiya-2 1987 India 113 3.4 Terai, inner Terai 22. Palung-2 1987 Nepal 172 6.1 High hills 23. Khumal-5 1990 Nepal 154 6.7 Mid-hills 24. Khumal-7 1990 IRRI 146 7.0 Mid-hills

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

S.No Variety Year of Release

Origin Days of Maturity

Yield (Mt/ha)

Recommended domains 25. Khumal-9 1991 IRRI 148 6.7 Mid-hills 26. Chhomrong local 1991 Nepal 164 4.2 Eastern and western high hills 27. Radha-7 1991 Nepal 148 3.5 Terai, inner Terai (rainfed) 28. Radhakrishna-9 1991 Nepal 150 3.8 Terai, inner Terai (irrigated) 29. Radha-4 1995 IRRI 125 3.2 Mid-western and Far-western Terai 30. Radha-11 1995 India 148 4.0 Central Terai (rainfed) 31. Radha-12 1995 India 155 4.6 Eastern Terai (irrigated/rainfed) 32. Machapuchhre-3 1997 Nepal 174 5.0 Mid-hills and high hills (semiirrigated) 33. Khumal-6 1999 7.8 155 7.8 Kathmandu Valley and equivalent areas 34. Rampur Masuli 1999 5.7 135 5.7 Central and western Terai, inner Terai, and foot hills (irrigated and semiirrigated) 35 Manjushree-2 2002 Nepal 149 8.3 Kathmandu Valley 36 Khumal-11 2002 Nepal 144 7.7 Kathmandu Valley 37 Chandannath-1 2002 Jhingling78 (China) 191 6.0 High altitudes (Jumla) 38 Chandannath-3 2002 Yungen-1 (China) 191 6.0 High altitudes (Jumla) 39 Loktantra 2006 IRRI 130 3.6 Terai, Inner Terai, Mid-hills (3000 ft) 40 Mithila 2006 IRRI 145 5.0 Terai 41 Ram dhan 2006 Nepal 133 4.9 Terai, Inner Terai 42 Barkhe 3004 2006 India/IRRI 157 3.9 Terai,InnerTerai 43 PokhreliJethobudho 2006 Nepal 185 2.7 600-900 mslPokhara Valley 44 Khumal – 8 2006 Nepal 158 9.8 Terai, Inner Terai, Mid-hill 45 SunauloSugandha 2008 UK 115 3.8 Terai, Inner Terai 46 Ghaiya – 1 2010 IRRI 115 3.6 Terai,InnerTerai, Midhills 47 Lalka Basmati 2010 Nepal 150 3.5 Central and Eastern

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

S.No Variety Year of Release

Origin Days of Maturity

Yield (Mt/ha)

Recommended domains Terai 48 Hardinath-2 2010 Indonesia 125 3.1-4.2 Terai, Inner Terai 49 Tarahara-1 2010 IRRI 113-125 4.2 Terai and Eastern Terai 50 Khumal – 10 2010 Nepal 145 4.5 Mid-hills 51 Khumal – 13 2010 Nepal 145 4.5 Mid-hills 52 SukhhaDhan – 1 2011 IRRI 125 2.5-3.6 Terai, Inner Terai, River basin 53 SukhhaDhan – 2 2011 IRRI 125 3.3-3.5 Terai, Inner Terai, River basin 54 SukhhaDhan – 3 2011 IRRI 125 3.2-4.2 Terai, Inner Terai, River basin 55 Barkhe – 2014 2011 IRRI 125 3.5 Terai, Inner Terai, River basin 56 Swarna Sub-1 2011 IRRI 150 4.5 Terai 57 SambhaMasuli Sub1 2011 IRRI 150 4.5 Inner Terai 58 Lekali Dhan - 1 2014 Nepal 158 4.07 1500-2600 msl, high hill 59 Lekali Dhan - 3 2014 Nepal 152 3.9 1500-2600 msl, high hill 60 Sukkha Dhan - 4 2014 IRRI 118-125 2.7-4 Unirrigated area of Terai and inner Terai and mid hill 500 msl 61 Sukkha Dhan - 5 2014 IRRI 125 3.2-4.2 Unirrigated area of Terai and inner Terai and mid hill 500 msl 62 Sukkha Dhan - 6 2014 IRRI 120-125 3-4 Unirrigated area of Terai and inner Terai and mid hill 500 msl ** Denotified varieties.

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

Annex 2: Registered Varieties of Rice in Nepal S.No Variety Year of Release Days of Maturity

Yield (Mt/ha)

Recommended domains 1. DY 18** 2010 118 9.17 Terai, inner Terai 2. DY 28** 2010 120 8.86 Terai, inner Terai 3. DY 69** 2010 125 9.52 Terai, inner Terai

4 Barkhe – 1027 2011 121 3.3

UnirrigatedTerai, Mid hill 100 mals Low hill and Unirrigated area

5. Tara ** 2011 116 5.1 Terai, Inner Terai 6. Suraj** 2011 123 5.77 Terai, Inner Terai 7. Prithivi** 2011 124 6.0 Terai and Inner Terai Irrigated land 8. Arise-6444** 2011 122 4.43 Terai and Inner Terai Irrigated land 9. PHB-71** 2011 129 5.26 Terai/Irrigated land 10. US-312** 2011 132 5.46 Sarlahi – BankeTerai and Inner Terai 11. Champian** 2011 136 5.15 Sarlahi – BankeTerai and Inner Terai 12. Raja** 2011 126 4.94 Sarlahi – BankeTerai and Inner Terai 13. RH-257** 2011 123 4.99 Terai, Inner Terai 14. Gorakhnath-509** 2011 123 4.82 Terai, Inner Terai 15. Loknath-505** 2011 129 4.79 Terai and Inner Terai irrigated area 16. PAC-801** 2011 123 7.79 Terai and Inner Terai irrigated area 17. Reshma-786** 2011 120 4.91 East Terai irrigated area 18. Baishali** 2011 121 6.35 East Terai irrigated area ** Hybrid varieties

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

Annex 3: Area under Normal (main season), Spring (Chaite season), Boro (winter season) and Early (Bhadaiya) Rice

SN District Main Season rice (ha) Spring Season (ha)

Boro rice (winter season) (ha)

Bhadaiya rice (ha)

Total

1 Sankhuwasabha 13,599 2,213 - - 15,812 2 Solukhumbu 1,543 77 - - 1,620 3 Taplegung 10,477 - - - 10,477 4 Dolkha 3,135 - - - 3,135 5 Sindhupalchok 9,208 3,092 - - 12,300 6 Rasuwa 1,163 141 - - 1,304 7 Manang - - - - - 8 Mustang - - - - - 9 Dolpa 276 - - - 276 10 Mugu 1,294 - - - 1,294 11 Jumla 3,000 - - - 3,000 12 Humla 572 - - - 572 13 Kalikot 3,465 - - - 3,465 14 Bajura 3,310 - - - 3,310 15 Bajhang 7,006 - - - 7,006 16 Darchula 3,848 632 - - 4,480 Mountain Sub- Total 61,897 6,155 - - 68,052 17 Ilam 13,855 970 - - 14,825 18 Panchthar 9,326 2,174 - - 11,500 19 Tehrethum 10,328 334 - - 10,662 20 Dhankuta 7,512 1,365 - - 8,877 21 Khotang 12,514 2,688 - - 15,202 22 Bhojpur 15,603 507 - - 16,110 23 Okhaldhunga 6,321 252 - - 6,573 24 Udayapur 15,350 1,507 - - 16,857 25 Ramechhap 9,303 105 - - 9,405 26 Kathmandu 8,000 - - - 8,000 27 Bhaktapur 4,252 - - - 4,252 28 Lalitpur 4,600 - - - 4,600 29 Makawanpur 9,233 1,877 - - 11,110 30 Kavre 9,072 1,028 - - 10,100 31 Dhadhing 12,462 2,288 - - 14,750 32 Nuwakot 10,121 4,504 - - 14,625 33 Sindhuli 9,176 1,089 - - 10,265 34 Gorkha 11,473 612 - - 12,085 35 Kaski 22,118 382 - - 22,500 36 Syangja 16,493 507 - - 17,000 37 Arghakhanchi 7,728 461 - - 8,189

RICE VARIETAL MAPPING IN NEPAL

38 Lamjung 14,780 773 - - 15,553 39 Palpa 8,062 688 - - 8,750 40 Magdi 3,895 - - - 3,895 41 Baglung 5,830 104 - - 5,934 42 Parbat 8,180 650 - - 8,830 43 Tanahu 10,674 2,476 - - 13,150 44 Gulmi 9,611 353 - - 9,964 45 Rukum 3,562 - - - 3,562 46 Rolpa 4,715 - - - 4,715 47 Pyuthan 6,483 42 - - 6,525 48 Salyan 6,927 34 - - 6,961 49 Jajarkot 3,515 - - - 3,515 50 Dailekha 8,507 - - - 8,507 51 Surkhet 14,492 108 - - 14,600 52 Achham 11,570 - - - 11,570 53 Doti 9,743 7 - - 9,750 54 Baitadi 5,974 25 - - 9,999 55 Dadheldhura 6,221 - - - 6,221 Hill Sub Total 367,583 27,910 - - 395,493 56 Jhapa 74,516 14,884 - - 89,400 57 Siraha 59,709 1,291 - - 61,000 58 Saptari 59,363 637 - - 60,000 59 Sunsari 48,728 4,822 - - 53,500 60 Morang 57,039 19,945 - 1,216 78,200 61 Dhanusa 60,460 4,540 - - 65,000 62 Mahottari 30,571 4.205 - - 34,776 63 Sarlahi 39,289 64 - - 39,352 64 Rautahat 39,670 500 - 480 40,650 65 Bara 31,606 19,044 - 2,050 52,700 66 Parsa 40,232 2,039 - 2,090 44,360 67 Chitawan 24,993 3,653 - 1,010 29,655 68 Nawalparasi 42,696 1,487 - 707 44,890 69 Rupandehi 69,800 - - 700 70,500 70 Kapilbastu 71,500 - - - 71,500 71 Dang 38,201 99 - - 38,300 72 Banke 36,462 - - - 36,462 73 Bardiya 45,500 - - - 45,500 74 Kanchanpur 46,253 402 - - 46,655 75 Kailali 64,863 637 - - 65,500 Terai Sub-Total 981,448 78248 1,216 7,037 1,067,949 Grand Total 1,410,928 112,313 1,216 7,037 1,531,494